Close Range Photogrammetry: Principles, Techniques and Applications

522 Pages·2011·5.848 MB·English

by  Thomas Luhman, Stuart Robson, Stephen Kyle, Ian Harley

Close Range
Photogrammetry
Principles, techniques and applications
Professor Dr Thomas Luhmann
Institute for Applied Photogrammetry and Geoinformatics
University for Applied Sciences, Oldenburg, Germany
Dr Stuart Robson
Senior Lecturer, Department of Geomatic Engineering
University College London, UK
Dr Stephen Kyle
Consultant in Large Scale Metrology,
Guernsey, Channel Islands, UK
Professor Ian Harley
Professor Emeritus, Department of Geomatic Engineering
University College London, UK
Whittles Publishing
Published by
Whittles Publishing,
Dunbeath,
Caithness KW6 6EG,
Scotland, UK
www.whittlespublishing.com
© 2011 T Luhmann, S Robson, S Kyle & I Harley
ISBN for CD 978-184995-057-2
Print edition 978-1870325-50-9
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, recording or otherwise
without prior permission of the publishers.
Preface
The capacity to make accurate three-dimensional measurements has always been fundamental
to the physical sciences and is of increasing importance in manufacturing, engineering, biology,
forensic investigation, medical science, architecture, archaeology and other fields. Many tools
and techniques have been developed in many disciplines but each tends to be specialised and to
be applicable only for objects within a limited range of dimensions. Photogrammetry tran-
scends those limitations: it may be used equally for mapping from cameras in space and for
measuring the microtopography of human skin. Photogrammetry has usually been regarded as
one of the specialisms of geomatics (or surveying, to use a more familiar word) for the produc-
tion of maps. Today, however, photogrammetry is readily available to engineers and many other
professionals who wish to make accurate three-dimensional measurements of complex objects.
This book explains the application of photogrammetry to such tasks, and provides the math-
ematics, physics and photographic theory necessary for a good understanding of the techniques
and is very closely based on Luhmann’s Nahbereichsphotogrammetrie published in German
by Wichmann in 2000 and, in a second edition, in 2003. That book stimulated a demand for a
similar text in English. This book is addressed not only to photogrammetrists but also to both
students and experts in optical three-dimensional metrology and three-dimensional image
processing.
As well as giving a little history, we have attempted to describe the highest level of develop-
ment of the subject at the time of publication. Technology changes extremely rapidly and the
book is published at a time when analogue imaging and processing techniques are being re-
placed by fully digital methods. We believe, however, that analogue methods should be dis-
cussed here as they can help directly in realizing the potential of newer techniques. A good
knowledge of conventional photography is essential, for example, for the optimal application
of digital imaging systems.
We would like to thank Keith Whittles from Whittles Publishing for his support and espe-
cially for his belief that our work would be finished in a reasonable period of time. We would
also like to thank all friends, colleagues and companies for their technical input and for material
submitted for inclusion. Last but not least, we express our gratitude to our own families.
In a book by four authors, working part-time on such a large task and under the pressure of
a deadline, readers will inevitably find discontinuities of style, some repetition and some errors.
We hope that you will forgive such faults; we look forward to feedback especially concerning
matters that should be corrected.
Thomas Luhmann, Stuart Robson, Stephen Kyle, Ian Harley

Contents
Abbreviations.........................................................................................................................x
Image sources......................................................................................................................xii
1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Overview......................................................................................................................1
1.2 Fundamental methods...................................................................................................2
1.2.1 The photogrammetric process..........................................................................2
1.2.2 Aspects of photogrammetry.............................................................................3
1.2.3 Image forming model.......................................................................................6
1.2.4 Photogrammetric systems.................................................................................8
1.2.5 Photogrammetric products..............................................................................11
1.3 Applications................................................................................................................13
1.4 Historical development...............................................................................................15
References and further reading............................................................................................25
2 Mathematical fundamentals....................................................................................31
2.1 Coordinate systems.....................................................................................................31
2.1.1 Image and camera coordinate systems...........................................................31
2.1.2 Comparator coordinate system.......................................................................32
2.1.3 Model coordinate system................................................................................32
2.1.4 Object coordinate system...............................................................................33
2.1.5 3D instrument coordinate system...................................................................33
2.2 Coordinate transformations........................................................................................34
2.2.1 Plane transformations.....................................................................................34
2.2.2 Spatial transformations...................................................................................39
2.3 Adjustment techniques...............................................................................................52
2.3.1 The problem....................................................................................................52
2.3.2 Least-squares method (Gauss-Markov linear model)....................................55
2.3.3 Measures of quality........................................................................................59
2.3.4 Error detection in practice..............................................................................67
2.3.5 Computational aspects....................................................................................70
2.4 Geometric elements....................................................................................................72
2.4.1 Analytical geometry in the plane...................................................................73
2.4.2 Analytical geometry in 3D space...................................................................82
2.4.3 Surfaces...........................................................................................................90
2.4.4 Compliance with design.................................................................................93
References ...........................................................................................................................94
Contents
3 Imaging technology.....................................................................................................97
vi
3.1 Imaging concepts........................................................................................................97
3.1.1 Methods of image acquisition........................................................................97
3.1.2 Imaging configurations...................................................................................98
3.2 Geometric fundamentals...........................................................................................100
3.2.1 Image scale and accuracy.............................................................................100
3.2.2 Optical imaging............................................................................................104
3.2.3 Interior orientation of a camera....................................................................114
3.2.4 Resolution.....................................................................................................129
3.2.5 Fundamentals of sampling theory................................................................132
3.3 Imaging systems.......................................................................................................135
3.3.1 Analogue imaging systems...........................................................................135
3.3.2 Digital imaging systems...............................................................................147
3.3.3 Laser-based measuring systems....................................................................176
3.3.4 Other imaging systems.................................................................................181
3.4 Targeting and illumination.......................................................................................183
3.4.1 Object targeting............................................................................................183
3.4.2 Illumination techniques................................................................................190
References .........................................................................................................................195
4 Analytical methods....................................................................................................201
4.1 Overview..................................................................................................................201
4.2 Orientation methods.................................................................................................202
4.2.1 Exterior orientation.......................................................................................202
4.2.2 Collinearity equations...................................................................................204
4.2.3 Orientation of single images.........................................................................206
4.2.4 Object position and orientation by inverse resection...................................214
4.2.5 Orientation of stereo image pairs.................................................................215
4.3 Bundle triangulation.................................................................................................229
4.3.1 General remarks............................................................................................229
4.3.2 Mathematical model.....................................................................................234
4.3.3 Object coordinate system (definition of datum)...........................................244
4.3.4 Generation of approximate values................................................................251
4.3.5 Quality measures and analysis of results.....................................................260
4.3.6 Strategies for bundle adjustment..................................................................264
4.4 Object reconstruction................................................................................................266
4.4.1 Single image processing...............................................................................266
4.4.2 Stereoscopic processing................................................................................274
4.4.3 Multi-image processing................................................................................283
4.5 Line photogrammetry...............................................................................................293
4.5.1 Space resection using parallel object lines...................................................293
4.5.2 Collinearity equations for straight lines.......................................................296
4.5.3 Relative orientation with straight lines.........................................................297
Contents
4.5.4 3D similarity transformation with straight lines..........................................299
vii
4.5.5 Bundle adjustment with straight lines..........................................................300
4.5.6 Bundle adjustment with geometric elements...............................................301
4.6 Multi-media photogrammetry..................................................................................302
4.6.1 Light refraction at media interfaces.............................................................302
4.6.2 Extended model of bundle triangulation......................................................307
4.7 Panoramic photogrammetry.....................................................................................309
4.7.1 Cylindrical panoramic imaging model.........................................................309
4.7.2 Orientation of panoramic imagery................................................................311
4.7.3 Epipolar geometry........................................................................................313
4.7.4 Spatial intersection.......................................................................................315
References..........................................................................................................................315
5 Digital image processing.........................................................................................319
5.1 Fundamentals............................................................................................................319
5.1.1 Image processing procedure.........................................................................319
5.1.2 Pixel coordinate system................................................................................320
5.1.3 Handling image data.....................................................................................322
5.2 Image preprocessing.................................................................................................327
5.2.1 Point operations............................................................................................327
5.2.2 Filter operations............................................................................................333
5.2.3 Edge extraction.............................................................................................339
5.3 Geometric image transformation..............................................................................350
5.3.1 Fundamentals of rectification.......................................................................351
5.3.2 Grey value interpolation...............................................................................352
5.3.3 3D visualisation............................................................................................354
5.4 Digital processing of single images.........................................................................361
5.4.1 Approximate values......................................................................................361
5.4.2 Measurement of single point features..........................................................364
5.4.3 Contour following.........................................................................................376
5.5 Image matching and 3D object reconstruction........................................................378
5.5.1 Overview.......................................................................................................378
5.5.2 Feature-based matching procedures.............................................................380
5.5.3 Correspondence analysis based on epipolar geometry.................................385
5.5.4 Area-based multi-image matching...............................................................388
5.5.5 Matching methods with object models.........................................................392
References .........................................................................................................................397
6 Photogrammetric measuring systems................................................................401
6.1 Comparators..............................................................................................................401
6.1.1 Design principles..........................................................................................401
6.1.2 Analogue image comparators.......................................................................402
6.1.3 Digital image comparators...........................................................................402
Contents
6.2 Single camera systems..............................................................................................404
viii
6.2.1 Camera with hand-held probing device.......................................................404
6.2.2 Probing system with integrated camera.......................................................405
6.2.3 Camera system for robot calibration............................................................406
6.2.4 High-speed 6 DOF system...........................................................................407
6.3 Stereoscopic processing systems..............................................................................407
6.3.1 Analytical stereo-instruments.......................................................................407
6.3.2 Digital stereoprocessing systems..................................................................410
6.3.3 Stereovision systems.....................................................................................412
6.4 Multi-image measuring systems...............................................................................413
6.4.1 Interactive processing systems.....................................................................413
6.4.2 Mobile industrial point measuring systems..................................................415
6.4.3 Stationary industrial on-line measuring systems..........................................420
6.5 Systems for surface measurement............................................................................424
6.5.1 Active pattern projection..............................................................................425
6.5.2 Passive pattern projection.............................................................................431
6.6 Acceptance and re-verification of measuring systems.............................................433
6.6.1 Definition of terms.......................................................................................433
6.6.2 Differentiation from coordinate measuring machines..................................435
6.6.3 Uncertainty of length measurement.............................................................436
References..........................................................................................................................438
7 Measurement concepts and solutions in practice.........................................441
7.1 Project planning........................................................................................................441
7.1.1 Planning criteria............................................................................................441
7.1.2 Accuracy issues............................................................................................442
7.1.3 Restrictions on imaging configuration.........................................................443
7.1.4 Computer-aided design of the imaging network..........................................445
7.2 Camera calibration....................................................................................................448
7.2.1 Calibration methods......................................................................................448
7.2.2 Imaging configurations.................................................................................453
7.3 Dynamic photogrammetry........................................................................................458
7.3.1 Relative movements between object and imaging system...........................458
7.3.2 Recording cinematic sequences....................................................................461
7.4 Close-range aerial imagery.......................................................................................465
References..........................................................................................................................467
8 Example applications................................................................................................469
8.1 Architecture and cultural heritage............................................................................469
8.1.1 Photogrammetric building records...............................................................469
8.1.2 3D models.....................................................................................................472
8.1.3 Free-form surfaces........................................................................................475
8.2 Engineering surveying and civil engineering...........................................................478
Contents
8.2.1 Measurement of deformations......................................................................478
ix
8.2.2 Tunnel profile measurement.........................................................................481
8.2.3 Deformation of concrete tanks.....................................................................482
8.3 Industrial applications..............................................................................................484
8.3.1 Power stations and industrial plant...............................................................484
8.3.2 Aircraft and space industries........................................................................485
8.3.3 Car industry..................................................................................................487
8.3.4 Ship building industry..................................................................................488
8.4 Forensic applications................................................................................................489
8.5 Medicine...................................................................................................................491
8.5.1 Surface measurement....................................................................................491
8.5.2 On-line measuring systems...........................................................................492
References..........................................................................................................................494
Index......................................................................................................................................497
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
x
ADC analogue-to-digital converter
AGC automatic gain control
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASPRS American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
BRDF bidirectional reflection distribution function
CAAD computer aided architectural design
CAD computer aided design
CAM computer aided manufacturing
CCD charge coupled device
CCIR Comité consultatif international pour la radio (International Radio Consultative Committee)
CD-ROM compact disk – read-only memory
CID charge injection device
CIE Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage (International Commission on Illumination)
CIPA Comité International de Photogrammétrie Architecturale (International Committee for
Architectural Photogrammetry)
CMM coordinate measurement machine
CMOS complementary metal oxide semi-conductor
CT computer tomogram, tomography
CTF contrast transfer function
DAGM Deutsche Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Mustererkennung (German Association for Pattern
Recognition)
DCT discrete cosine transform
DGPF Deutsche Gesellschaft für Photogrammetrie, Fernerkundung und Geoinformation (German
Society for Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation)
DGZfP Deutsche Gesellschaft für Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung (German Society for Non-Destructive
Testing)
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German institute for standardization)
DLT direct linear transformation
DMD digital mirror device
DOF degree(s) of freedom
DRAM dynamic random access memory
DSM digital surface model
DTP desktop publishing
DVD digital versatile (video) disk
DXF autocad data exchange format
EP entrance pupil
E’P exit pupil
EPS encapsulated postscript
FFT full frame transfer or fast Fourier transform
FMC forward motion compensation
FOV field of view
FPGA field-programmable gate array
FT frame transfer
GIF graphic interchange format
GIS geo(graphic) information system
GMA Gesellschaft für Meß- und Automatisierungstechnik (Society for Metrology and Automation
Technology)
GPS global positioning system
HDTV high definition television