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Climatology PDF

470 Pages·2006·31.597 MB·English
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■ r • CHAPTER 1 : CLIMATOLOGY : BASIC CONCEPTS I'M Climatology : a part of physical geography ; t climatology : an atmospheric science (aerology, meteorology, climatology); t climatology : types and subdivisions (dynamic climatology, regional climatology, applied climatology and satellite climatology); 3 aims and scope of climatology ; 6 climatology : a historical perspective; 7 elements of weather and climatej, 13 controls of weather and climate. 13 1 CLIMATOLOGY : BASIC CONCEPTS 1.1 CLIMATOLOGY : A PART OF PHYSICAL changes of environmental components and causes GEOGRAPHY thereof (Savindra Singh, 2003). It may be mentioned that on an average Physical geography is one of the two major physical geography includes the consideration of branches of geography, namely physical geog­ various aspects of four components of the earth raphy and human geography. Physical geography e.g. (i) lithosphere (geomorphology), hydrosphere was previously considered as the agglomeration (oceanography), atmosphere (meteorology and of different branches of earth sciences or natural climatology), and biosphere (biogeography— sciences such as the science of atmosphere environmental geography). It is significant to note (meteorology and climatology); the science of seas that the atmosphere is very important and critical and oceans (oceanography); the science of solid component of the living earth system because it, earth (geology); the science of soils (pedology); together with the lithospheric and hydrospheric the science of landforms (geomorphology); the science of plants and animals (life sciences— components, makes the earth a suitable habitat/ biogeography) etc. but presently physical geog­ place for numerous species of flora and fauna. raphy is not only the agglomeration and unifi­ Needless to say that climatology is the study of cation of earth sciences as referred to above but various elements and aspects of atmosphere. it also studies the patterns of interactions between 1.2. CLIMATOLOGY : AN ATMOSPHERIC technologically advanced man and physical en­ SCIENCE vironment including land, air, water, plants and animals. As a distinct branch' of geography The atmosphere is a complex thick gaseous physical geography studies the spatial patterns envelope which surrounds the earth from ail sides and spatial relationships of environmental com­ and is attached to the earth's surface by the ponents of the globe in regional context, it also gravitational force and it is a significant com-, studies the causes of regional patterns of such ponent of the biospheric ecosystem because the spatial relationships, and simultaneously it incor­ life on the earth is due to the existence of this porates the explanation of spatial and temporal atmosphere otherwise the earth would have become CLIMATOLOGY 2 2003). In simple words it may be defined as that barren like moon. Besides providing all necessary branch of atmospheric sciences which studies the gases for the existence and survival of life forms characteristics and behaviour of the atmospheric in the biosphere, it also filters the incoming solar conditions based on the study of individual electromagnetic radiation waves and thus prevents phenomenon and motions of the atmosphere the ultraviolet radiation waves reaching the earth's involving principles of physics. surface and protects the earth from becoming too hot. Besides providing energy to earth's biospheric (3) Climatology ecosystems, it also plays a key role in the Climate is defined as the study of aggregate distribution and redistribution of solar energy both weather (atmospheric) conditions of any region in horizontally and vertically on the earth's surface. long-term perspective. Thus, climatology in­ Itis thus obvious that the detailed study of different components of the atmosphere has gained cur­ cludes the systematic and regional studies of the rency. The comprehensive study of the atmosphere atmospheric conditions i.e. weather and climate. is called atmospheric science which has been Weather refers to the sum total of the atmospheric conveniently divided into a few significant branches conditions in terms of temperature, pressure, e.g. aerology, meteorology and climatology. It wind, moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and has now become imperative to distinguish between visibility of a particular place at any given time. these three branches, though inseparable, of the Infact, weather denotes short-term variations of atmospheric sciences. atmospheric conditions and it is highly variable. Thus, climatology is the study of average (1) Aerology atmospheric conditions of a place or region over Aerology, also called as aeronomy, is in long period of time. According to Trewartha fact a part of meteorology, as a dictionary meaning ‘climate represents a composite of day to day reveals that it is considered as a branch of weather conditions and of atmospheric elements, meteorology which involves the study of the within a specified area over a long period of time.’ characteristics of the composition of the atmos­ According to Critchfield ‘climate is more than phere based on the observations by means of statistical average; it is the aggregate of the baloons and aeroplanes whereas aeronomy in­ atmospheric conditions involving heat, moisture, volves the study of chemical and physical com­ and air movement. Extremes must always be position of the atmosphere. It may be pointed considered in any climatic description in addition out that presently aerology/aeronomy is consid­ to means, trends, and probabilities.’ According to ered as a part of meteorology wherein we include Koeppen and De Long, ‘climate is a summary, a the consideration of the chemistry of different composite of weather conditions over a long layers of the atmosphere and physical reactions period of time, truly portrayed, it includes details occurring in these vertical layers. of variations, extremes, frequencies, sequences of weather elements which occur from year to year, (2) Meteorology particularly in temperature and precipitation. As per dictionary meaning (Webster) Climate is (thus) aggregate of the weather’. G. F. meteorology is a science which deals with the Taylor has maintained that ‘climate is the integra­ atmosphere and its phenomena, including weather tion of weather, and weather is differentiation of and climate i.e. the atmospheric conditions and climate. The distinction between weather and weather of an area. ‘Meteorology is the science climate is, therefore, mainly one of time.’ that deals with motions and phenomena of the Climatology is, thus, defined as ‘that science atmosphere, with a view to both forecasting which studies the nature of climate, the causes and weather and explaining the processes involved. interpretation of its spatial variations and its It deals largely with the status of the atmosphere association with the elements of natural environ­ over a short period and uses the principles of ment and human activities’ (Critchfield). It is now physics to reach its goals’ (J.E. Oliver and J. J. Hidore, apparent that climatology is that atmospheric CLIMATOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS science which includes the consideration of nents of the atmosphere leading to weather and weather conditions (atmospheric conditions) of a climatic changes and effects of weather and place or an area of different spatial scalcs over climate on man and his activities in particular and long period of time, of frequent and infrequent other flora and fauna in general. weather phenomena as well as average weather conditions. Climatology becomes both meteoro­ 1.3. CLIMATOLOGY: TYPES AND SUBDIVISIONS logical (because it studies atmospheric condi­ The science of climatology is divided into tions) and geographical (because it includes the various branches on different bases depending on consideration of weather conditions of a place the nature of requirement and objectives of the having certain location on the earth's surfaces e.g. study of climatic conditions of a definite location climate of a city like Allahabad, Delhi, London, e.g. spatio-temporal variations of weather and New York, etc., of an area e.g. the Ganga plain, climatic elements, range of spatial units of study Malabar coast-India, England, Great Plains-USA, i.e. scale consideration, climatic variations and Red basin-China, of a continent etc.). Following differences etc. H.J. Critchfield identified three E.T. Stringer it may be forwarded that ‘climatol­ distinct branches of climatology e.g. 1. physical ogy does not belong entirely within the fields of climatology, 2. regional climatology, and meteorology or geography. It is a science-really 3. applied climatology. an applied science-whose methods are strictly 1. Physical Climatology meteorological but whose aims and results are geographical’ (quoted in Climatology by Oliver Physical climatology also known as dy­ and Hidore, 2003). namic climatology deals with the interpretation of Since the emergence of man as an important factors responsible for the spatial and temporal factor and agent of climate after Industrial variations of exchange of air circulation, heat and humidity. It studies various elements of weather, Revolution, which started in 1860 world over, the namely insolation, temperature, air pressure, aims and scope of physical geography have wind, evaporation and humidity, precipitation, undergone sea change. The technological man and fogs, visibility etc. Different climates are formed his economic activities have changed and are due to combinations of these weather elements. changing the natural atmospheric conditions The occurrences of different combinations of through weather modification schemes (like cloud these weather elements are accomplished through seeding and induced artificial precipitation, hail different processes and mechanisms say dynamic storm suppression, dissemination and clearance of processes. Thus, dynamic climatology studies fogs etc.), urbanization, industrialization, land these processes of exchange of heat, humidity and use changes (clearance of forest cover), building interactions between the atmosphere and the activities etc. Thus, it has become necessary to earth's surface. It is, thus, evident that physical include human interferences in atmospheric con­ climatology studies the factors and processes of ditions and processes in any meaningful definition regional variations of climatic conditions. Physi­ of climatology. Simultaneously, the impacts of cal climatology is, infact, related to meteorology climate on human health and wealth should also be wherein atmospheric physics and chemistry and included in the definition of climatology. atmospheric dynamics provide basis for general Thus, climatology may be defined by the principles of climatology. It may^ be concluded author as that branch of atmospheric science that physical and dynamic climatology studies the which includes the study of long-term weather systematic description and analysis of energy conditions of a place or an area of varying spatial balance of the atmosphere and the earth (i.e. scales over long period of time, of frequent and global radiation balance or heat budget), atmos­ infrequent weather phenomena, systematic study pheric temperature, humidity and precipitation, of climate and its distribution on the earth's atmospheric motions and air circulation, air surface both horizontally and vertically, effects of masses and atmospheric extreme events (atmos­ human economic activities on different compo­ pheric disturbances, droughts, floods etc.). 4 climatoloqv esses operating over varying ground surfaces 2. Regional Climatology their impacts on human being, and micro* Climatic conditions significantly vary from organisms. This is the reason that a few climatolo* one region to the other region. In other words, gists consider microclimate as part of applie<j there are spatial variations in the combinations of climatology. elements of weather and climate (insolation, (2) Local Climate : The local climate temperature, air pressure, humidity etc.) and comprises a few microclimatic areas and hence its hence different climate types are originated. The dimension in terms of areal coverage is larger than regional climatology studies different types of microclimate. The areal unit of local climate has climates determined by almost similar climatic the horizontal extent from 100 meters to 1000 conditions having a set of combination of ele­ meters and vertically, the area extends from ments of weather and climate in an areal (spatial) ground surface upto 1000 meters. It may be unit the size of which varies according to the mentioned that in the study of local climate of an spatial scales e.g. from a vegetable garden to crop area (having different characteristics, namely a fields, villages, cities, forest cover, desert, moun­ forest cover, an orchard, a village, an urban area tains, plains, countries and even the continents. It etc.) the horizontal differences in climatic condi­ is, thus, apparent that the size of areal unit for the tions are given roore importance than the vertical study of regional climatology varies from a micro differences. Local climate varies even in forest area (e.g. crop field) to macro area (e.g. a covers depending upon the nature of forest continent). Thus, the primary goal of regional canopy, density of trees, ground cover, vertical climatology is to study the differences in the climatic conditions of the areal units having structure, seasonality etc. different spatial scales. Based on spatial scale (3) Mesoclimate : The mesoclimate incor­ M.M. Yoshino identified the following four porates several local climatic areas which has groups of climates to be included in regional horizontal extent from 100 meters to 20 km and climatology : 1. microclimate, 2. local climate, 3. vertical extent from the ground surface to 6 km in mesoclimate, and 4. macroclimate. the atmosphere. It may be mentioned that (1) Microclimate : The climatic condititoonp ographically the mesoclimatic area is homoge­ of the smallest areal unit having a horizontal neous which is characterized by similar physical extent from less than one meter to 100 meters and controls of climate e.g. the Ganga Delta, Konkan vertical extent from the ground surface to 100 coastal plain, middle Ganga plain, Sundarban, meters (e.g. single crop field or a single household Rewa plateau, Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, or the area around a single tree) is termed as Godavari Delta, Sardar Sarovar area etc. may be microclimate. It may be mentioned that data of cited as examples of typical mesoclimatic areas. It climatic variables (e.g. temperature, air pressure, may be pointed out that in the beginning spatial humidity, evaporation, precipitation, air circula­ scales (i.e. scales of area) were used to determine tion etc.) are not available in published climatological the areas for mesoclimatic studies but recently the data records and hence such data are always scales of atmospheric motions are given more obtained through fieldwork (measurement of importance and the study of mesoscale meteoro­ these data by suitable instruments) by the indi­ logical phenomena involving atmospheric mo­ vidual (investigator). It is evident that the microclimate tions like severe atmospheric storms (supercyclones, is related to weather conditions at ground surface severe tornadoes and hurricanes), pattern of level and hence the findings of microclimatic precipitation in a physical unit, heat areas, w a v e study of different ground surface covers (ranging cold wave areas etc. has gained currency with the from bare surface to grass covers, crop covers, tree advancement in obtaining meteorological data covers, human structure covers etc.) may reveal through advanced satellite and radar techniques' different microclimatic environments which may (4) Macroclimate : Macroclimate ^ enable the investigators to present a generalized known as geoclimate or geographical clim picture of variation of microclimatological proc- covers largest area of all the other three types CUMATOWGY : BASIC CONCEPTS 5 regional climate as refred to above. The horizontal that in the beginning the emergence of the concept distance is more than 20 km, it may be severul of environmental determinism in the late 19th hundred kilometers and vertical extent from century gave rise to climatic determinism because ground surface may be more than 6 km, Thus, the climate being major environmental component of macroclimatic area may cover even the whole physical environment was demonstrated as the continent or a large country like the USA, China, most dominant factor in guiding and controlling Russia, Brazil, India etc. It may be mentioned that human activities. E. Huntington's ‘Civilization during the climatic study of microclimatic area and Climate’ (1915) and ‘Season of Birth’ (1938) which comprises several mesoclimatic areas clearly demonstrate the strong control of climate averages of atmospheric circulation patterns over on humans. Now the study of relationships longer period of time are considered to determine between climate and human activities has become the general characteristics of the study area while more logical and rational because this is based on smaller scale (in terms of time and space both) careful analysis and interpretation of available patterns of atmospheric motions (circulation) are data say it is based on quantitative methods. filtered out (omitted) e.g. for the study of climate Consequently, now the applied climatology of India, circulation of heat waves (loo) will be studies the interactions between climate and isnored. Similarly, mesoscale motions such as biosphere i.e. how does climate influence and mountain and valley winds, land and sea breezes, control plants, animals including man and in turn local cold or warm winds would not be considered how does man modify climate by introducing in the study of general characteristics of macroclimatic advertent and inadvertent changes in the physical area. environment and by making certain weather Based on the approach of analysis of macro­ modifications e.g. cloud seeding and induced climates, climatology is divided into (i) descrip­ precipitation. Further, applied climatology in­ tive climatology, and (ii) synoptic climatology. cludes the study of variability of climate, climatic Descriptive climatology of macroclimatic area changes, air pollution, climate and comfort, includes the study of the climatic characteristics of climate and heath, climate and society, climate the ground surface, namely temperature, air pres­ and recreation, climate and archietecture, extreme sure, humidity, precipitation etc. Synopic climatol­ weather events (e.g. supercyclones, tornadoes and ogy includes the analysis of dominant patterns of hurricanes, floods and droughts) and their im­ atmospheric circulation. pacts, climate and agriculture, climate and manu­ facturing industries, climate and urban planning, ‘This approach (synoptic approach) obtains weather forecasting, climate and transport and a synopsis, or condensed view, of the atmosphere communication, weather modification etc. at a given time and is referred to as the synoptic climatology’ (Oliver and Hidore, 2003). Human biometeorology, which studies the reactions of human bodies to changes in the It may be mentioned that the descriptive atmospheric environment, has gained currency approach of macroclimatic studies involves the recently. It lays emphasis on to ‘establish how classification of world climates into certain types much of the overall biological variability is the on the basis of surface climatic characteristics and result of changes in weather, climate and season’ the principles of synoptic climatology e.g. equato­ (J.E. Hobbs, 1980). rial climate, monsoon climate, Mediterranean climate etc. The study of applied climatology is also divided into three categories based on influences 3. Applied Climatology of climatic environment on human health and behaviouron different spatial scalese.g. microclimate, Applied climatology studies the climatic ecoclimate, and geoclimate. According to M. controls of human activities and the application of Bates (1966) three levels of climatic environment climatic principles and knowledge to solve vari­ affect human behaviour: (1) microclimate, which ous problems faced by human society e.g. global represents weather conditions surrounding an warming and climate change. It may be mentioned 6 CLIMATOLOGY individual organism; (2) ecological climate or (atmospheric energy balance), temperature, air ecoclimate, which represents weather elements of pressure, atmospheric circulation, humidity and the habitats of the organisms, in the case of man precipitation and characteristic features of differ­ the habitat may be his house and working places ent climate types but should also be widened so as like factory, office, mine, agricultural farms, to include its applied aspect (e.g. applied climatol­ pasture etc.; and (3) geographical climate or ogy) including the explanation of relationships geodimate, which represents weather conditions between climate and human activities and proc­ of larger areal unit and longer temporal span. esses and causes of such relationships at varying spatial scales e.g. micro, meso and macro levels. Satellite Climatology The climatologists' aims should also focus to The satellite climatology deals with climatic identify relationships between climatic regions data obtained through satellites which view the and biomes comprising plant and animal commu­ wider areas from above and provide useful data of nities. Besides, the goal of climatology also day to day weather conditions. The weather includes the investigation of palaeoclimates and satellites provide images of the earth and cloud their reconstruction, causes and factors of climatic covers. It may be mentioned that it is the orbit and changes and effective devices of weather forecast­ sensors of weather satellites which determine the ing. types and nature of weather data. Generally, two It is pertinent to point out that the contents types of orbits are used, namely (i) high-altitude (scope) of any discipline largely depend on its geostationary orbit, and (ii) the low-level polar aims and objectives. The scope covering all the orbit while sensing instruments are classified into contents of climatology may be described through two major categories e.g. (i) imaging system, and its major branches i.e. physical and dynamic (ii) sounding system. The satellite imageries climatology, regional climatology and applied obtained from both polar orbiting and geosynchronous climatology. As already stated ‘physical climatol­ (geostationary) platforms provide useful informa­ ogy deals largely with energy exchanges and tion about weather conditions mainly cloud cover. physical processes. Dynamic climatology is more ‘Satellite climatology is becoming increasingly concerned with atmospheric motion and ex­ important as digital archives are growing’ (Oliver changes that lead to and result from that motion’ and Hidore, 2003). This aspect has been further (J.E. Oliver and J.J. Hidore, 2003). Thus, the main elaborated in the 17th Chapter (weather forecast­ contents of physical and dynamic climatology ing) of this book. comprise global radiation and energy (heat) balance, atmospheric temperature (distributional 1.4. AIMS AND SCOPE OF CLIMATOLOGY patterns-horizontal and vertical, and factors influ­ The primary goal of climatology is to study encing temperature distribution), atmospheric the identification, demarcation and distribution of moisture (hydrological cycle, absolute, specific and relative humidity, evaporation, condensation different types of climates, the mode of origin of and precipitation), motions in the atmosphere different types of climate, causes and processes (causes and distributional patterns of pressure that lead to climatic variations both horizontally belts, air circulation), global atmospheric circula­ and vertically in the world, different elements of tion (horizontal circulation and planetary winds, weather and climate, the varying combinations ol meridional circulation, Walker circulation and which give birth to different climatic types, the southern oscillation), airmasses and fronts (re­ interactions of weather and climate with human gional patterns of airmasses, frontogenesis, society and consequent impacts on human activi­ cyclogenesis-convergent circulation, divergent ties and human health covering both physiological circulation-anticyclones), atmospheric extreme and psychological aspects. It may be pointed out events (atmospheric disturbances-tropical cy­ that the objectives of climatology should not be clones, hurricanes and tornadoes, floods and confined only to the study of description of droughts) etc. elements of weather and climate like insolation : BASIC CONCEPTS As stated above regional climatology aims at 1.5 CLIMATOLOGY : A HISTORICAL the study of different types of climates of the PERSPECTIVE world and hence the subject matter of regional Like other branches of knowledge the dimatology comprises the classification of world discipline of climatology has also its roots in the climates of macro spatial scale, location and philosophical ideas and postulates of ancient distribution and systematic description involving Greeks, Romans and Egyptians. Infact, Greece, temperature, air pressure and winds, precipitation Rome and Egypt, the centers of ancient cultures and effects of climate on natural vegetation. The anckcivilization, have been cradles of philosophi­ approaches to the classification of world climates cal and scientific ideas. The present status of are (i) genetic approach, (ii) empirical approach, climatology is the result of gradual but successive and (iii) objective approach and thus climatic development of climatological knowledge and classification falls under three broad categories, concepts developed in different periods by innu­ namely (1) genetic classification, (2) empirical merable thinkers and scientists. Even the word classification, and (3) numerical classification. The ‘climate’ has its Greek origin as the word consists schemes of classification of world climates by of two Greek words klima, meaning thereby slope Koeppen, Thornthwaite and Trewartha fall under or inclinitation of the axis of the earth, and logos, empirical system of climatic classification. meaning thereby discourse or description. Klima Genetic system of climatic classification is ‘specifies an earth region at a particular place on based on either physical determinants or that slope-that is, the location of place in relation airmass dominance as stated by Oliver and to parallels of latitude’ (Oliver and Hidore, 2003). Hidore (2003). Regional climatology at macro The historical evolution of the concepts and level also includes the study of reconstruction of theories together with the development of the palaeoclimates (past climates) and prediction subject (contents) of climatology may be briefly (forecast) of future climates, climatic changes outlined as follows : over geological time and causes of climate Ancient period : A few concepts and ideas changes. about the weather conditions were advanced by Applied climatology includes the considera­ Greek and Roman thinkers. The Greeks> tried to understand the nature of atmosphere and its tion of the impacts of climate on human activities influences on human health and culture. The first and human society and human responses to written documents on atmosphere appeared in 400 climates, namely physiological and psychological B.C. when Hippocrates produced ‘Air, Water, and response. Significant relationships between cli­ Places’ wherein he described the influence of mate and human activities and society include climate on health. The first compendium on climate and health, climate and civilization, meteorology, entitled Meteorologica was pro­ climate and architecture, climate and urban duced by Aristotle wherein he discussed different environment, climate and agriculture, climate and aspects of weather science i.e. meteorology. industry, climate and transportation and commu­ Theophrastus described different aspects of winds nication, climate and tourism and commerce etc. and presented critical explanation of Aristotle’s Effects of human activities on atmospheric envi­ ideas on weather science in his book ‘De Ventis* in ronment resulting into changes in global radiation 300 B.C. The ancient Greek thinkers divided the balance due to global warming caused by increase globe into three temperature zones on the basis of ln the emission of greenhouse gases latitudes e.g. (i) tropical zone, (ii) temperate zone, (mainly carbon dioxide and methane) at alarming and (iii) frigid zone. rate and ozone depletion also become major Dark Age : The initiatives taken by ancient contents of investigation in applied climatology, Greek and Roman thinkers in the field of atmos­ resently, climatic changes and weather pheric knowledge and weather conditions could Recasting have more focussed contents of not be carried forward for many hundred years, say 8 CLIMATOLOGY (i) First law : for nearly 1400 years during which a lull prevailed in the development of geographical as well as P V = p V = k 0 0 A 1 v I K| climatological ideas and thoughts, though a few where Arab thinkers broke the monotony of academic lull P0 and P, are pressure at two times in the 9th and 10th centuries during which some V0 and V, are volume of gas at two times sporadic ideas regarding atmosphere and weather K is constant were put forth. The Boyle's first law of gases states that if Period of renewed interest : The long pressure increases, the volume of gases decreases continued academic silence of about 1400 years whereas decrease in pressure causes increase in was suddenly broken by the emergence of great gas volume. desire of the Europeans to undertake voyages for (ii) The Boyle's second law of gases denotes different purposes. The period from 15th to 16th relationship between air pressure (P) and density centuries is called Great Age of Discovery and Exploration because efforts were made to discover of gas (D). and explore new areas and their characteristic P/D = k (at constant temperature) features including atmospheric and weather condi­ This means increase in air pressure results tions. It may be mentioned that the explorers in increase in gas density and vice versa. reported atmospheric and weather conditions of the It is evident that Boyle postulated inverse areas they reached according to their own experi­ relationship between air pressure and gas volume ences and understandings. Such reports of weather and direct relationship between air pressure and and climate of different regions outside Europe gas density. ‘were quite fanciful; they provided for the basis of With the availability of measuring (of misconceptions about parts of the world that atmospheric variables) instruments France started prevailed for centuries.’ systematic and regular measurement and observa­ Period of scientific analysis : It may be tions of weather phenomena in 1664 with its pointed out that the knowledge about weather and weather station located at Paris. Edmund Hailey climate upto 16th century was purely descriptive studied planetary winds and presented a map and non-coherent because this was based on showing trade winds in 1668. Du Crest introduced qualitively observed data and description by the centigrade scale for temperature in 1641. Hadley non-professional individuals. The science of proposed the cell model of tropical circulation climatology blossomed in the 17th century when a between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn in few instruments were invented to measure cli­ 1735 which is widely known as Hadley cell. matic variables. The proper recording of tempera­ Period of regional description : The period ture started with the invention of thermometer by ranging from 18th to 19th centuries was character­ Galileo in 1593 and by Santorre in 1612. The ized by the study of weather phenomena at measurement of atmospheric air pressure became regional and global levels and efforts were made possible with the invention of barometer by to prepare maps of the countries, continents and Torricelli in 1643. Thus, the availability of data on the globe depicting climatic variables like, insolation, temperature and air pressure provided basis for temperature, air pressure and winds, atmospheric formulation of a few laws about atmospheric disturbances, precipitation etc. on the basis of conditions, namely Francis Bacon's treatise on extensive data measured by improved and stand­ wind in 1662; Boyle’s laws about air pressure and ardized weather instruments. Recording of cli­ matic data mainly surface temperature and pre­ atmospheric gases etc. Boyle presented a series of cipitation on regular basis in many of the laws regarding relationships among air pressure, European countries and the USA enabled the volume and density of gases taking temperature as weather men to store mass dataset for hundreds constant. His gas laws are stated below : years. Luke Howard, for the first time, presented *

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