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CLEARING A PATH THROUGH MINES/BOOBY-TRAPS... Land Mines Under an international agreement some of the leading powers have been destroying their stocks of anti-personnel mines. But that doesn't mean mine warfare is over - far from it. Mines have been with us a long time. The first mines were employed in the American Civil War when Confederate forces linked tripwires to musket trigger mechanisms to fire black powder and shrapnel charges with percussion caps. More like booby traps than today's mines, they were named "land torpedoes", and their use in the war produced protests from the Union government. Rudimentary anti-tank mines were employed by the German Army in World War I. These were based on shells fitted with super-quick fuses, and proved effective against American-crewed British-built tanks in 1918. However it was not until World War II that effective mines, both anti-tank (AT) and anti-personnel (AP) were developed and used in quantity. Anti-personnel mines Anti-personnel mines come in three forms: omni-directional bounding shrapnel, directional shrapnel, and blast. Blast mines are about the size of a shoe polish tin and contain enough explosive to blow off a man's foot. Among blast mines the most widely used have been the Italian Tecnovar TS-50, which has turned up in three continents, and the widely copied Soviet PMN. These contain respectively 50g and 240g of high explosive (HE) and are designed to disable a man so that he he must be evacuated by two or four other men, and subsequently passed down the casualty evacuation chain. The sight of men with blast injuries to feet, legs and lower abdomen lowers morale and slows the momentum of an advance. Directional shrapnel mines, such as the U.S. M18A1 Claymore, blast 700 ball bearings across a 60 degree arc at a height of two metres, to an effective range of 50+ meters. Bounding AP mines, in the shape ofthe S.Mi.35 and S.Mi.44, were developed by the Germans in World War II, and have been the model for all subsequent designs including the Soviet OZM-4 and the Italian Valsella Valmara 69. Bounding AP mines are triggered either by a tripwire or direct pressure. This fires a container to a height of about a metre above the ground, where it explodes - scattering fragments or ball bearings over 360 degrees, causing casualties out to 50 metres or so. Men close to a directional or bounding mine will suffer multiple wounds, which are likely to be fatal. Anti-tank mines Early anti-tank mines were designed to explode only after they had been subject to pressures or around 210 kg. These designs used blast to cut tracks and disrupt road wheels, to produce an "M" or mobility kill. Modern designs can destroy a tank or AFV, and so produce a "K" kill. "K" kills can be caused by blast alone, but many mines now use a shaped charge to produce this result. When a shaped charge explodes it projects a stream of molten metal and gas which can penetrate considerable thicknesses of armour plate. They were used in World War II for AT weapons, but only after the war was the technology used in mines. AT and AP mines were originally produced in steel, though the Soviet Union experimented with wood, and the Germans used pottery, glass and Bakelite as the external case. This made the mines harder to locate using electronic mine detectors. The most significant change in mine design came with the use of plastic. This is tough, light, and can be colored to assist camouflage. It will not rust or deteriorate and since modern mines have practically no metal parts, they cannot be detected with electronic mine detectors. Along with plastic came the electronics revolution. This made it possible to develop AT mine fuses which could discriminate between types of vehicles, trigger a mine remotely, and even switch it off, or "self-sterilise" after a pre-set time. The Swedish Type FFV 028 pioneered this technology - this mine would explode even if a tank straddled it, since its magnetic field operated the fuse, so the mine attacked the full width of the AFV. The shaped charge penetrated the hull and detonated on-board ammunition. A "thinking mine" had entered service. In World War II, the Germans also produced some of the most effective AT mines. Their T.Mi.29 with its three ZDZ 29 igniters was copied by the Yugoslav Federal arms factories as the TMA-4, albeit in plastic, and was one of the many mines used to block roads and defiles in Bosnia. Off-route mines, like the French GIAT MIACAH F1 and Swedish FFV 016, fire a shaped charge into the side of an AFV when the vehicle either trips a wire or triggers an electronic sensor. Sensors have allowed one-shot anti-tank weapons like the British Hunting LAW 80 and French Manhurin Apilas to be mounted on a simple tripod and turned into potent ambush weapons. Off-route mines can be used to block defiles, close gaps in minefields, or as part of a remote control ambush. "Thinking" mines Electronics have not only changed modern mine designs, they have given new life to older weapons. The large fuse wells in many anti-tank mines will accommodate fuses which are triggered by either seismic signals or the magnetic field of an AFV. The fuse can be programmed with a "menu" of seismic signals so that it can discriminate between, say, an M1A1 Abrams and a T-74. Before these sophisticated fuses were available, simpler mechanisms were available to make mines more effective. For instance, the double impulse fuse works after more than one vehicle has passed over it. This means that a minefield can be designed with several outer lines of AT mines which will only explode when the first wave of enemy tanks are already disabled or damaged deep in the minefield. The double impulse fused mines may therefore damage or destroy valuable recovery vehicles, or the second wave of enemy armour. Mines may be fitted with anti-handling devices or tilt fuses, so that sappers attempting to lift them by hand will trigger the mine, or ploughs fitted to AFVs will be destroyed as they are used to dig out AT mines and push them to one side to clear a path. A cheaper form of full width attack mine can be produced by a tilt rod screwed into the fuse well. The rod stands about 0.75 metres clear of the ground. If it is pushed out of alignment by the glacis plate, it will detonate the mine underneath the belly of the AFV. Minefields Mines are employed for three purposes: Barrier, Tactical and Nuisance. A barrier minefield is intended to canalize an enemy attack into a "killing ground" where anti-tank guided weapons (ATGWs) can be employed against tanks and Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs). These resemble a man-made equivalent of a natural barrier such as a river, swamp, cliff or mountain. Minefield design can incorporate existing natural and man-made obstacles - mines laid on river banks or along anti-tank ditches are harder to detect and neutralise. Tactical minefields are smaller and are laid around a battalion or company position to block approaches and canalise vehicles into smaller killing grounds. Finally there are nuisance minefields. These may be AT, AP or a mix. They may be laid forward of larger minefields, on road verges, or in defiles where men and vehicles will pass. Whereas barrier and tactical minefields are normally fenced and marked, nuisance minefields are not. Civilian casualties Mines are designed to be easy to lay and arm - normally by removing a safety pin or clip - but once laid and armed will not discriminate between friend, foe and neutral. In many of the post-war conflicts in Africa, Asia and the Far East, terrorists and guerrillas have emplaced both AT and AP mines in agricultural land, around water holes and wells, and on roads and tracks. Some of these mines have killed and wounded their military opponents, but many of the victims are women and children who have remained in the area attempting to eke a living out of the now lethal farm land. If the land is neglected it soon becomes overgrown, but the mines remain beneath this scrub or secondary growth. In some campaigns government forces have used fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters to lay AP mines at random from the air in areas they do not control. All this makes detection and neutralisation of mines very difficult. An added problem is the presence of unexploded ordnance and booby traps/trip wires. The former may be unexploded shells, sub-munitions, rockets and bombs which have been launched or fired and not exploded - armed and unstable - or ammunition stocks abandoned during fighting or grenades, anti-tank missiles or mortar bombs dropped by Soldiers in the heat of battle. Booby traps are small explosive charges with an electric or flash detonator and are initiated when a foolish and unsuspecting Soldier picks up a trophy attached to a tripwire, starts a vehicle, or simple opens a door or presses a light switch. Whereas mines are factory made products, which can be neutralised by following known and relatively simple safety procedures, unexploded ordnance and booby traps must be treated individually and can be unstable and unpredictable. Detection and clearance Intelligence about mines, booby traps and unexploded ordnance can come from a variety of sources. At words, casualties following an explosion indicates the presence of AT or AP mines. However prisoners and deserters, captured mine maps, aerial and satellite photography, and reports from recce patrols and forward Observation Posts (OPs), are among the other sources of intelligence. A sloppy engineer unit may leave the area littered with the packaging for mines, and may even be stupid and lazy enough to leave the safety pins in the vicinity. Regular patterns of disturbed soil as well as the minefield markers and fences may all give an indication of recent activity. Once the presence of a minefield has been established, it will have to be reconnoitred by engineers to establish its mix - AT, AP or both - and extent. The engineers can then plan their breaching operation. A distinction should be made between breaching and clearance. A minefield is breached when lanes are cleared through it to allow men and vehicles to pass through. Normally several lanes are cleared simultaneously so that the enemy cannot concentrate its artillery and air attacks on one vulnerable axis. Clearance takes place after the fighting is over, and is a painstaking process in which mines and all types of ordnance are removed from the battlefield. After the campaign in the Falklands in 1982 the priority was to clear the town of Stanley. In the late 1990s many of the Argentine minefields in the countryside still remained in place, marked and fenced off, since they posed no real threat to the civilian population. Extensive battlefield clearance took place in Kuwait following its liberation in 1991. Minefield reconnaissance uses both manual and electronic tools. One of the most effective manual tools is a "prodder" - a non-ferrous metal rod which is pushed into the ground at an angle of about 45 degrees. When it hits something solid the engineer may mark the site for subsequent clearance, or begin the painstaking task himself. This entails digging down around the mine so that a grapnel can be attached and the mine pulled out of the ground my men under cover. If it has anti-handling devices these will detonate the mine without causing casualties. In Cambodia UN de-mining teams found that the Kyhmer Rouge had laid some mines at an angle so that a prodder used too vigorously would detonate the mine. It is also necessary to check for tripwires which may be attached to AP mines. These are very thin and hard to spot. One technique is to use a light wand, which touches the wire but does not detonate the mine. A simple length of wire such as a straightened wire coat-hanger can be used successfully. Or you can throw/launch a grapnel and pull these wires from a safe distance to pre-deontate the mines. (See devices below). Electronic mine detectors have grown in sophistication as the metal content of mines has diminished. Modern detectors can detect even tiny amounts of metal buried several centimetres in the soil - although the more sensitive the detector, the more false alarms are caused by small pieces of metal debris such as shrapnel fragments. The essence of minefield breaching operations is speed. The fear that haunted Coalition planners in the Gulf War was that the Iraqi minefields and obstacles would delay Coalition forces long enough for Iraq to deploy chemical weapons. One of the fastest ways to breach a minefield is with explosives. The British system, the Royal Ordnance Giant Viper, uses eight rockets to carry a 67mm diameter, 230-metre hose filled with aluminised PE6/A1 plastic explosive across a minefield. When it has landed, it is detonated in a spectacular explosion, clearing a gap 183 meters long and 7.3 meters wide. it will destroy most mines unless they have double-impulse fuses or are blast-proofed. Two vehicles towing Giant Vipers working in relays can clear a gap 400 metres deep. As an added precaution an AFV fitted with a mine plough then clears through the gap following the explosion. Similar line breaching systems are in use with the U.S. Army and marines, who use the M58A5 Mine Clearing Line Charge (MICLIC), and the Chinese Army which as a 425mm Type 762 tank chassis mounted twin rocket system. One rocket in the Chinese system will clear a lane 130 metres long and 12 to 22 metres wide. The American MICLIC is trailer mounted like the Giant Viper, and will clear a path 13.7 metres wide and 100.6 metres long. On a smaller scale, man packable systems like the British Schermuly Rapid Anti-personnel Minefield Breaching System Mark 2 (RAMBS-2) can be fired from a rifle with standard ammunition. It has an explosive line 60 metres long which will clear AP mines to a width of 0.6 metres. Israel Military Industries (IMI) have a portable system (POMINS II) now adopted by the U.S. Army which will clear a path through barbed wire as well as clearing AP mines. A World War I telescopic wire clearing charge, known by the British as the Bangalore Torpedo, is still in use in the U.S., Singapore, Pakistan, Israel and Chile for both AP mine clearance and wire obstacle breaching. Modern AFV mounted mine detonating and clearing systems include rollers, flails and ploughs. These are normally designed to be fitted to conventional Main Battle Tanks (MBTs) to clear a path either directly ahead of the tracks or across the full width of the vehicle. The Aardvark Joint Services Flail Unit (JSFU) is a highly specialised wheel and track vehicle with a rear mounted cap with armoured glass which uses both flails and a bulldozer blade to clear mines. Following the Gulf War the JSFU proved invaluable for clearing Iraqi mines in Kuwait. It is over 130 years since the first "land torpedoes" were laid with lethal results in the American Civil War. Tragically mines will remain a worldwide hazard long into the 21st century. BREACHING the minefield maze Reading all the myriad of Field Manuals (FMs) on the subject of mines and booby-traps, you hear a chorus of voices calling for you to use non-metallic mine probes, grappling hooks etc. etc. yet when you try to see if you have these things in your unit supply, you find that you are Sorry, Out of Luck (SOL). There is a: DETECTING SET, MINE PTBL, METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC [PLT LDR VEH ONLY] [07661] 4D6 J38 NSN 6665-00-138-7998 1 EA QTY AUTH Listed as standard equipment for Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV) units, but so far, I've only seen TANK units with these AN/PSS-12 mine detectors! A lot of good it will do to a vehicle crew that doesn't have personnel to dismount and use the detector! If you think Combat Engineers in M113A3s that the Army has failed to provide applique' armor for are going to survive to do your breaching, you are sadly mistaken. You, the infantry leader must come up with these Combat engineering tools yourself. First you must know what's avialable from the "system": http://www.pica.army.mil/orgs/pm-mcd/1demohom.htm. So this is what we have come up with for our upcoming rotation to JRTC. FM 20-32 Mine/Countermine Operations FM 21-75 Combat Skills of the Soldier: Appendix C FM 21-75 has the best breaching descriptions except you should wear helmet/body armor in the prone position when doing the breach. Your rifle should be carried by another Breach Team member, LBE should be dragged behind you hooked to your boot. CARRY BAG The easiest to obtain field carrying bag for your breach kit is the G.I. map case provided it be improved with quick-release buckles and straps so the Soldier can actually close the bag with something in it! This bag fits nicely into the left or right rear sponson storage rack of the BFV for quick access by dismounting infantry. The breach kit can be accessed even if the rear ramp is up, protecting the BFV from enemy fire. The breach kit will also fit on top of the dismounted Soldier's rucksack in a quick-detachable manner or slung across his back. http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/Quarters/2116/mapcase.htm The point of the quick-release buckles is that a large amount of equipment can be carried in the case, yet its fully secured in the cover flap which can be adjusted in length depending on the bulk of what is carried inside. When you want the item, the buckles open with the pinch of the fingers. Sew a nampetape on the outside cover flap: "BREACH KIT" so unit members can identify the purpose/contents of the case. GRAPPLING HOOK/LINE A small grappling hook or e-tool in a "L" shape tied to at least 100 feet of 550 cord can be hand thrown over an area where booby-trap wires are suspected and pulled from a safe distance to explode them. Obstacles and wire can be pulled away by tying the line to the front eyelet of an armored vehicle. This will fit into your breach kit bag. A hand or rifle-Launched Grappling Hook (LGH) has just been adopted by the U.S. Army and can also be carried in the breach kit bag or in its own NBC decon-compatible plastic hard case. Firing the LGH greatly reduces the exposure time while grappling to remove tripwires and obstacles. Cost is about $75-150 depending on quantities. But units should be able to order these from the supply system using its National Stock Number as a Class IX expendable item. LGHs are clearing the way as we speak in the former Yugoslavia, protecting Soldiers/Vehicles from injury. The LGH has been designed to meet the U.S. Army requirement for a small, light, and highly effective means to defeat tripwire mines and booby traps. This requirement, as well as a need for efficient humanitarian demining equipment, is applicable throughout the world. The LGH can be configured to operate with most standard infantry rifles, including the 5.56mm M16, M4 carbine, and 7.62mm NATO G3, as well as with single-shot commercial rifles. The range is approximately 100 meters with the M16, and is reported to be close to 200 meters with the G3. The LGH is reusable at least 20 times using blank ammunition. The LGH can be fired using a stronger charge blank 5.56mm round. The blank that is used is the M195 (DODAC 1330-G841). This is the 5.56 "grenade launching blank". They are not being manufactured now, but a large supply is in inventory and it can be ordered through normal channels. The range with this cartridge is at least as far as with the 5.56mm M855 ball round. The M200 is the standard 5.56mm noise making blank (used for MILES training), and the range is only about 20-25 meters. This can be used for training, and these are plentiful. SAA international, maker of the LGH sells a commercial blank, the C195, at $150 per box of 100, due to low rate production. It is not as good as the M195. A number of units make a high-powered blank by using the M855 ball round and pulling the bullet and plugging the tip with either a glue gun or silicon rubber from a tube. Be sure to leave space and not compress the propellant. Others take three noise making blanks (M200) and combine the powder into one, by filing down the tip of one blank to make an opening, then pour in the extra powder. Once loaded, crimp the end closed by squeezing and rotating the cartridge so it crimps evenly in a circle. Paint the full size charge RED to distinguish it from regular blanks. I suggest keeping all grenade launching blanks in one magazine painted red on the bottom. If you are in a training situation using blanks, and need to shoot the grapnel a short distance, use regular blanks. If you need to go "long distance" pull out the weak blank filled magazine and insert the long range blank magazine. In a combat situation, just use live ball ammo to launch the grapnel for long distances. If you need to shoot short, use a color coded magazine with M200 blanks. During MILES force-on-force maneuvers, the M17 MILES transmittor box rests over the barrel blocking its use by the grapnel. Instead of removing it and the Blank Firing Attachment (BFA), if you are in a unit that moves mounted, designate a crewman's M16 for grapnel launching. When the vehicle stops for a breach immediate action drill, have your designated grapnel launching Soldier take along the designated grapnel-launching rifle so his regular MILES-equipped rifle can stay MILES-zeroed and ready to fire in self-defense against OPFOR. One other thing - be sure to fire a live bullet into the LGH first to set the trap, or the bullet trap may fall out. When doing initial firing training, use an open grassy field and let the line lay where it falls. After the Soldier fires the grapnel, have him walk to it and bring it back instead of pulling it along the grass which could tangle the line. The POC at PM-MCD, Fort Belvoir is Mr. Brian Green (DSN 654-2474 or commercial 703- 704-2474). He is an outstanding professional who has helped the Army solve the countermine challenge with dedication and innovation at low cost. The compact standard package contains the grapnel, bullet trap. bridle, and retrieval line. The LGH is type classified by the U.S. Army (NSN 1095-01-412-4150) and is in full rate production in the U.S. by SAA International, Ltd, under a U.S. DoD approved Quality Assurance Plan. The LGH has been demonstrated to meet all desired effectiveness and safety criteria. OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS Note: Insure rifle muzzle is free of debris. 1. Inspect grapnel, bridle and retrieval line. See warnings, and additional information. 2. Place the retrieval line spool on its side on the ground with pay out end facing down range. The Plastic wrapping does not have to be removed from the spool. Pull out about five feet of line from the center of the spool. 3. Slide grapnel over muzzle until fully seated. Ensure bridle is clear of bayonet lug, front sling swivel and front sight post. 4. Move to the rear and side of retrieval line spool. 5. Assume a modified firing position with the rifle stock UNDER the firing shoulder. Grip pistol grip with the firing hand. Use the non-firing hand to grip hand guards and to adjust the angle of the weapon to between 15 and 30 degrees. See modified firing position pictures. Note: If tree limbs, wires, or other overhead obstacles are in the line of fire, aim weapon below these and then engage target area. 6. After firing grapnel, pick up remaining line and walk back 30 meters. Using a slow retrieval, hand over hand, clear target area of trip wires. WARNINGS Hearing protection required while launching grapnel. Inspect grapnel, bridle, and retrieval line for damage before use. Check connections. Grapnels with or missing tines should be used in training only. Insure rifle is in semi mode before launching grapnel. Heavy Recoil -- Take care when shoulder firing. Avoid launching with rifle butt on ground. Rifle damage may occur. DO NOT: � Launch if grapnel cylinder is cracked, bent, dented, or deformed. � Launch with armor piercing or tracer rounds. � Fire more than one bullet into grapnel. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION For max range, use standard ammunition. Blanks or other rounds will reduce range. Pull slowly. Grapnel can skip trip wires if pulled too hard or fast. Wear Gloves if you have them. Keep launching grapnels until no more mines detonate. Then proof lane with a final grapnel. After NBC contamination, wash with hot, soapy water. Grapnel can be re-used with blanks only. Recycled grapnel must be stenciled "FOR TRAINING USE ONLY - USE 5.56MM BLANK ONLY."> Inspect used grapnel before firing again with blanks. Discard if damaged. Grapnels with broken or missing tines may be re-used in training. TRAINING TIPS! Obtain LGH Training Bag (NSN 1095-01-413-9231) with reusable line for use with recycled grapnel. We found that its faster to use a mini-link to join the two wire loops emanating from the grapnel. This gives you a quick attach/detach capability for switching new lines after use. The mini-clip is just $2 (904 D-02 ACC Biner 3/16 BLK Ranger Joe's). Another option is to take the disposible line and cut it in half--200 meters is for a 7.62mm weapons launch---and make up two x 100 meter spools using a paper towel cardboard roll (start the rolling with the end of the line knotted and in a slot on the end of the roll). Tie an overhand knot using a bight of line to create a figure-8 loop to clip onto the mini-link. Cover up the spools with a shortened english muffin plastic bag and twist tie, leaving out the end of the line with the figure-8 loop. You can now place the spool into your BDU trouser pocket without fear of it unraveling into a tangled mess. When you are ready to fire with the desired blank loaded, and the grapnel over the barrel of your M16, you slide the figure-8 loop into the mini-link, undo the twist tie and bag and place on the ground for the unraveling after the launch. MINE PROBES The best mine probes that are not made out of metal turn out to be plastic tent stakes. Tent Pegs: G.I. Plastic Tent Pegs G.I. Plastic Tent Pegs: Length: 9". Pkg of 6. Wt: 6 ozs. Item : 6551 Amount : $2.75 These tent pegs can be ordered by clicking the following hyperlink from Ranger Joe's: http://www.rangerjoe.com/catalog/selection.cfm?category=main&id=1548 Take a small piece of "550" para cord and make a wrist lanyard through the tent peg holes, which can also be used as a trip wire "feeler". The tent pegs fit nicely into the map case's large pen pocket. The U.S. Army's PM for countermine replies: There are two mine probes that can be used. Recommend you give consideration to: NSN 6665-01-432-6213 Probe, Mine 5 Piece (TA-1) $79.40 This is a collapsible titanium mine probe that has greater durability than the plastic probes. While it is titanium, it will not disrupt magnetic signature-fuzed land mines. It comes with a compact ballistic nylon sheath. It has been recently adopted by the U.S. Army Engineer School for issue to each MOS 12B and two per AN/PSS-12 Mine Detector in Airborne, Air-mobile, and light engineer Battalions and supporting equipment Companies and Corps Battalions. They are available from: Mission Knives & Tools, Inc. 13805 Alton Parkway Suite D Irvine, CA 92618 The NSN for the older Non-Metallic Mine Probe is 6665-01-371-4874. Cost is about $10. Last time we bought it was from Federal Prison Industries. May still be available in the supply system. Larry Nee Chief, Countermine Division Project Manager for Mines, Countermine and Demolitions Phone: 703-704-1970 DSN: 654-1970 FAX: 703-704-1969 WIRE CUTTERS A small set of wire cutters will also fit into the breach kit case, though you can also use your M9 Wire-Cutter Bayonet attached to your LBE, too. WIRE GLOVES Depending on the situation, you may need gloves with metal studs in them to handle barbed wire without tearing your hands up. A set of these gloves will fit into the breach kit. ENGINEER TAPE After you have breached a path through the enemy's mines/booby-traps you may want to mark this specific area to go through with white engineer tape. BETTER MARKER FLAGS The marker sticks can be collected locally (before entering hostile areas) or wooden dowels cut for this purpose, carried in the breach kit bag. The BEST solution was found by 197th Infantry Brigade Combat vet, SGT John Miller, which is inexpensive high-visibility engineer stake flags which come in packs of 100 for about $9. These are essentially stiff wires with bright orange flags that can be bent and carried inside the breach kit bag. 100 Orange Glo Stake flags 4521OG-8 Empire Level Manufacturing Company Milwaukee, WI 53226 W229N1420 Westwood Drive