Citizenship, Belonging, and Nation-States in the Twenty-First Century PDF
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Citizenship, Belonging, and Nation-States in the Twenty-First Century Citizenship, Belonging, and Nation-States in the Twenty-First Century Edited by Nicole Stokes-DuPass and Ramona Fruja CITIZENSHIP, BELONGING, AND NATION-STATES IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Selection and editorial content © Nicole Stokes-DuPass and Ramona Fruja 2016 Individual chapters © their respective contributors 2016 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission. In accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 2016 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of Nature America, Inc., One New York Plaza, Suite 4500, New York, NY 10004-1562. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. ISBN 978-1-137-53603-7 ISBN 978-1-137-53604-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-53604-4 Distribution in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world is by Palgrave Macmillan®, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Citizenship, belonging and nation-states in the twenty-first century / edited by Nicole Stokes-DuPass and Ramona Fruja. pages cm Includes index. ISBN 978-1-137-53603-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Citizenship— History—21st century. 2. Nation-state—History—21st century. I. Stokes-DuPass, Nicole. JF801.C57245 2016 323.6—dc23 2015025845 A catalogue record for the book is available from the British Library. This work is dedicated to two individuals who have left their indelible mark on my spirit and have helped to shape me into the person that I am today. My mother, Sharyn Menzies, is, in a word, phenomenal. She is a living testament to perseverance under any odds, and the one whom I credit with instilling in me my work ethic and my insatiable appetite for learning. My grandfather, James R. Stokes Sr. always has vision. He is the idea-person in our family, who dreams big and then uses hard work to achieve what he envisions. Thank you both for these and many other life lessons. Nicole This work is dedicated to my family—by blood and by commitment—both near and far. Thank you for all the evident and subtle ways in which you have supported me to make this work possible. Ramona Contents List of Figure ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xxvii 1 Constructing the Boundaries of US Citizenship in the Era of Enforcement and Securitization 1 Sofya Aptekar 2 Enduring Practices of Scrutiny: State-Centered Perspectives on Naturalization and Integration in Germany and Denmark 31 Ramona Fruja 3 Politics of Belonging, from National to Personal: The Political Framing of “Dutch” Identity and Ethnic Minority Citizens 55 Marieke Slootman and Jan Willem Duyvendak 4 Conceiving Citizenship and Statelessness in the Middle East and Sweden: The Experiences of Kurdish Migrants in Sweden 85 Barzoo Eliassi 5 Change, Challenge, and Continuity in Qatari Development: Identity and Citizenship in the Fulcrum of Hyper-Globalization 111 David Mednicoff 6 Regimes of Political Belonging: Turkey and Egypt in Comparative Perspective 137 Sinem Adar viii Contents 7 Recognition as a Relationship of Power and Struggle: The Governing of Kurds and Alevis in Turkey 163 Ozlem Goner 8 Situating the Syrian State: Nation and Education 1914–2014 195 Idir Ouahes 9 Permanently Waiting: The Kenyan State and the Refugee Protection Regime 221 Erika L. Iverson Notes on Contributors 247 Index 251 List of Figure 5.1 Population Growth in Qatar (1940–2030) 114 Preface In recent years, there has been considerable media and scholarly dis- course about citizenship and belonging and the capabilities and responsibilities of the nation-state to balance seemingly contradictory objectives—on the one hand, to secure its territory and its citizens from threats (real or perceived) and, on the other hand, to create the necessary conditions for inclusion and belonging among all who reside within its borders. Two tragic events recently highlighted this tension. First, the January 7, 2015 Paris shooting at the headquarters of the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo, where the brothers Cherif and Said Kouachi killed 11 people and were heard shouting in Arabic, “We have avenged the Prophet Mohammed!” and “God is great!” as they later killed a police officer on the street in Paris. A month later, on February 15, 2015, Omar Abdel Hamid El-Hussein—a 22-year-old Danish-born Muslim man—fired shots into the crowd at a free speech forum, outside of a Copenhagen café. The event was organized in response to the Charlie Hebdo tragedy and featured an appearance by the controversial Swedish cartoonist Lars Vilks, who gained infamy because the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten had published his con- troversial drawings of the Prophet Mohammed in 2005 and 2008. Similar to Charlie Hebdo, the Jyllands-Posten cartoon c ontroversy sparked comparable debates about freedom of speech and whether or not the offensive drawings should have been published at all. In the wake of the Copenhagen shootings, former Danish prime minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt concluded that the country would have to come up with new solutions to the threat of extremism, declaring: “As a nation, we have experienced a series of hours we will never forget. We have tasted the ugly taste of fear and powerlessness that terror would like to create. But we have also, as a society, answered back” (Gargiulo and Yan 2015). Public attention was then focused on the shooters in these incidents. In particular, El-Hussein was well known to Danish police for several criminal acts—ranging from petty theft to a stabbing incident, the latter of which led to his imprison- ment. However, there had not been any suspicion of his being xii Preface radicalized until later reports indicated that he had made online con- tact with members of Islamic State (ISIS). His story raised a crucial question: Why did he seem to have more attachment to the radical views of ISIS than to his status as a Dane? It is equally important, however, to shift focus from his individual choice and actions—as important as they are—and consider the context of the Danish state. Without suggesting that particular state actions and initiatives “caused” the terrorist’s actions, it is nevertheless important to reflect on what role, if any, the Danish state and state actors have played in generating contexts where certain members are more susceptible to this kind of radicalization. At the heart of both events is the delicate balance between notions of freedom of expression and the rights of recognition and inclusion for the Muslim populations in these countries. Implicitly, the dilem- mas extrapolate to the mechanisms of recognition and inclusion across contemporary nation-states. Given the often-problematic contexts of immigrant and minority group integration in France and Denmark, these events may also be representative of what Ruben G. Rumbaut described as “reactive ethnicity”—a process of heightening ethnic identity that emerges as an unintended consequence of highlighting group differences and creating bright boundaries between those identified as “us” and those identified as “them” (2008: 3). Rumbaut’s work described individual processes of constructing one’s own iden- tity under the hostilities of “contextual dissonance” (2008: 4), and we are interested in how such contexts can also result, at both macro- and micro-levels, from the actions of state actors who rhetorically and policy-wise delineate the meaning and salience of political and cultural identities within the state’s borders. Not only is membership through citizenship a boundary that traces state borders, its exclusionary parameters also seep both into seemingly unified nations (Bosniak 2008) and those modern states where tensions over belonging are all too evident in both symbolic and tragic ways. In the broadest sense, therefore, this volume advances the argu- ment that it is the nation-state that ultimately delineates conditions for belonging, not only for newcomers but also for historical minor- ity groups. Through its continued relevance in such analyses, the nation-state remains a critical unit of analysis, its actors having the power to use citizenship legislation, immigration, and integration policies to highlight group differences and to create, reinforce, or appease the bright boundaries of “us” and “them” between or among groups. Collectively, the cases demonstrate this position against the background of discourses that propose postnational models and
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