Cities and Climate Change (OECD) - Cities Alliance

278 Pages·2010·6.04 MB·English

Cities and Climate Change

As the hubs of economic activity, cities drive the vast majority of the world’s energy use and are major
contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions. Because they are home to major infrastructure and
Cities
highly concentrated populations, cities are also vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as
rising sea levels, warmer temperatures and fiercer storms. At the same time, better urban planning
and policies can reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions and improve the resilience of and Climate Change
urban infrastructure to climate change, thus shaping future trends.
This book shows how city and metropolitan regional governments working in tandem with national
governments can change the way we think about responding to climate change. The chapters
analyse: trends in urbanisation, economic growth, energy use and climate change; the economic
benefits of climate action; the role of urban policies in reducing energy demand, improving resilience
to climate change and complementing global climate policies; frameworks for multi-level governance
of climate change including engagement with relevant stakeholders; and the contribution of cities
to “green growth”, including the “greening” of fiscal policies, innovation and jobs. The book also
explores policy tools and best practices from both OECD and some non-member countries.
Cities and Climate Change reveals the importance of addressing climate change across all levels of
government. Local involvement through “climate-conscious” urban planning and management can
help achieve national climate goals and minimise tradeoffs between environmental and economic
priorities at local levels. The book will be relevant to policy makers, researchers, and others with an
interest in learning more about urbanisation and climate change policy.
Further reading
The Economics of Climate Change Mitigation: Policies and Options for Global Action Beyond 2012
(2009)
Green Cities: New Approaches to Confronting Climate Change, OECD Workshop Proceedings,
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain (2009)
Integrating Climate Change Adaptation into Development Co-operation: Policy Guidance (2009)
Competitive Cities and Climate Change, OECD Conference Proceedings, Milan, Italy (2008)
OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030 (2008)
The Economics of Climate Change Impacts and Policy Benefits at City Scale: A Conceptual
Framework, OECD Environment Working Paper No. 3 (2008)
Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes: Exposure Estimates, C
it
OECD Environment Working Paper No. 1 (2008) ie
s
Competitive Cities in the Global Economy (2006) a
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Please cite this publication as: h
a
OECD (2010), Cities and Climate Change, OECD Publishing. n
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264091375-en e
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Cities and Climate
Change
This work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The
opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official
views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.
Please cite this publication as:
OECD (2010), Cities and Climate Change, OECD Publishing.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264091375-en
ISBN 978-92-64-06366-2 (print)
ISBN 978-92-64-09137-5 (PDF)
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FOREWORD
Foreword
C
limate change has been on the OECD agenda since the late1980s. As an intergovernmental
organisation, the OECD represents 32member countries committed to common principles to support
economic development including social and environmental protection. We help governments to
improve their collective and individual performance of climate change policies through peer reviews,
dialogue and shared policy assessments. We provide an objective forum, away from international
negotiations, for countries to discuss and develop a shared understanding of good practice on climate
policy issues.
The OECD is actively working with government to highlight the role of cities in delivering
cost-effective policy responses to climate change. Cities are central to the climate policy challenge.
This is because they are home to the majority of global energy use and thus a large source of
emissions. Also, their prevalent coastal locations, exposed infrastructure, and large numbers of poor
and elderly residents make cities particularly vulnerable to sea level rise, storms and heat waves, all
of which are likely to be exacerbated by climate change. Importantly, urban policy provides
opportunities to respond to climate change, with the potential to stimulate innovation and advance
clean energy systems, sustainable transportation, spatial development and waste management
strategies to reduce greenhouse gases. With access to up-to-date climate science, impacts and
vulnerability assessment, local authorities can also work with local stakeholders to design and
implement effective adaptation strategies.
This book draws on the findings of a number of projects at the OECD that have advanced the
understanding of the roles that cities can play to respond efficiently and effectively to climate change.
It is a joint publication of the Public Governance and Territorial Development Directorate and the
Environment Directorate of the OECD, and the core of the work was originally published as two
working papers: “Competitive Cities and Climate Change”, in the OECD Regional Development
Working Papers Series, and “Cities, Climate Change and Multilevel Government”, in the OECD
Environmental Working Papers Series.
The Executive Summary and other relevant material from the book can be downloaded on the
OECD website: www.oecd.org/gov/cities.
Further enquiries about this work in this area should be addressed to:
● Lamia Kamal-Chaoui ([email protected]) of the OECD Public Governance and
Territorial Development Directorate.
● Jan Corfee-Morlot ([email protected]), of the OECD Environment Directorate.
CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE © OECD 2010 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements
T
his book is the result of a joint project overseen by two Working Parties of the OECD: the
Working Party on Territorial Policy in Urban Areas under the Territorial Development
PolicyCommittee, and the Working Party on Global and Structural Policies under the
Environment Policy Committee. It was produced and edited by Lamia Kamal-Chaoui
(OECDPublic Governance and Territorial Development Directorate), Jan Corfee-Morlot
(OECD Environment Directorate) and Alexis Robert (OECD Public Governance and
Territorial Development Directorate), under the supervision of Joaquim Oliveira Martins
(Head of the Regional Competitiveness and Governance Division) and Helen Mountford
(Head of the Climate Change, Biodiversity and Development Division). The book draws on
a number of internal contributions, including from Michael G. Donovan (local governance),
Tadashi Matsumuto (building and compact cities policies), Olaf Merk (urban finance),
MarioPiacentini (green growth), Javier Sanchez-Reaza and Daniel Sanchez-Serra (trends
and urbanisation and economic benefits of urban climate action), and Ian Cochran and
Pierre-Jonathan Teasdale (multi-level governance and national-local co-ordination).
Virginie Marchal was instrumental to the final editing of the document. Mario Pezzini
(Director of the OECD Development Centre, former Deputy Director of the Public
Governance and Territorial Development Directorate) and Marcos Bonturi (Deputy Chief
of Staff of the Secretary-General, former Head of the Regional Competitiveness
and Governance Division) provided valuable support in the report’s early stages. The
publication production was co-ordinated by Erin Byrne, with the help of MargoCointreau,
Laura Woodman and Jeanette Duboys.
A number of authors have contributed relevant background materials on which we have
drawn liberally, notably Adam Ostry, Chairman of the OECD Working Party on Urban Areas and
Director General, Infrastructure Canada; Dale Medearis, Senior Environmental Planner,
Northern Virginia Regional Commission (NVRC); Miranda Schreurs, Director of the
Environmental Policy Research Centre and Professor of Comparative Politics at the
FreieUniversität Berlin; Stéphane Hallegatte, Centre International de Recherche sur
l’Environnement et le Développement, Paris, France; and Kara Reeve, M.I.T. Department of
Urban Studies and Planning. The report has also benefitted from contributions outside the
OECD Secretariat, including from Mathias Ruth and Rebecca Gasper (Center for Integrative
Environmental Research, University of Maryland, College Park), Benoit Lefèvre and Vincent
Renard (IDDRI), and Fredrich Kahrl (Energy and Resources Group, University of California,
Berkeley). Special thanks are given to Fabio Grazi and Henri Waisman (CIRED) for modelling
work with IMACLIM-R and the urban module that incorporates the OECD Metropolitan Database.
We would also like to acknowledge those who have provided valuable comments on the
report and relevant background material. In the OECD, they are Hiroshi Kobayashi,
ClaireCharbit, Aziza Akhmouch and Xiao Wang (Public Governance and Territorial
Development Directorate), Shardul Agrawala, Nathalie Girouard, Arnoldo Matus-Kramer,
4 CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE © OECD 2010
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Jean-Marc Burniaux and Jean Chateau (Environment Directorate), Nigel Jollands,
Sarah Pasquier and Ralph Sims (International Energy Agency), Mary Crass and PhlippeCrist
(International Transport Forum), and Arthur Mickoleit and Tomoo Machiba (Directorate for
Science, Technology and Industry). We are also grateful to Keith Thorpe (Communities
and Local Government, Government of the United Kingdom), Vincent Fouchier
(Institut d’Aménagement et d’Urbanisme de la région d’Île-de-France), Hélène de Largentaye
(City of Paris), Mila Freire (World Bank), Meinte de Hoogh (Dutch government),
Rene-Laurent Ballaguy and Pierre-François Clerc (French Government),
Juan Carlos Zentella Gomez (Mexican government), and the Portuguese and Canadian
governments.
CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE © OECD 2010 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Part I
Trends
Chapter 1. Urbanisation, Economic Growth andClimate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
The worldwide urbanisation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Cities and economic concentration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Economic growth, energy use and greenhouse gas emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The urban form matters –the impact of sprawl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 2. Climate Change Impacts Specific toUrban Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Urban climate impacts and vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Coastal flooding risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Precipitation and storm impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Heat impacts and heat-island effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Effects of increased drought and water scarcity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The costs of urban inaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Chapter 3. Economic Benefits of Climate Action: The Urban Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Effects of urban policies on global energy demand and carbon emissions. . . . . . . . 83
Environment and economic growth at the urban scale: From trade-offs
to policy complementarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Other benefits of urban climate policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Annex 3.A1. Computable General Equilibrium Model of Cities
andClimate Change: IMACLIM-R andOECDMetropolitan Database . . . 94
CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE © OECD 2010 7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part II
Competitiveness Policies
Chapter 4. The Urban Policy Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Urban governance and policy complementarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Density and spatial urban form in combating climate change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Strategic urban planning for climate change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Chapter 5. Contribution of Cities toaGreenGrowthModel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Facilitating job creation through green growth: The role of cities and regions . . . . 147
Systemic changes through regional eco-innovation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Part III
Governance
Chapter 6. Multi-level Governance: AConceptualFramework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Methodology and key questions to structure the analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Chapter 7. Local and Regional Governance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
The public policy process: The planning behind climate change action plans
and policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Collaboration between municipalities and regional government. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Chapter 8. Local-National Climate Policy Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Main rationale for local-national policy linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Institutional models: Local-national co-operation on climate change . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Incorporating climate change into existing national, regional
and urban development frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Addressing national barriers to local action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Summary points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Chapter 9. Financial Instruments and Funding New Expenditure Needs. . . . . . . . . . . 227
Financial instruments and incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
New urban expenditures and new funding sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
An optimal mix of revenue sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8 CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE © OECD 2010