Christian Theologies of Suffering across the Centuries

282 Pages·2011·1.14 MB·English

by  Molly James

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Christian Theologies of Suffering across the Centuries:
An Examination of Suffering and Grief in the works of
Gregory the Great, Julian of Norwich,
Jeremy Taylor, C.S. Lewis and Ivone Gebara
Submitted by Molly Field James, to the University of Exeter as a dissertation
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in Theology, September 2010.
This dissertation is available for Library use on the understanding that it
is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may
be published without proper acknowledgement.
I certify that all material in this dissertation which is not my own work has
been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and
approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University.
(Signature)
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ABSTRACT
This dissertation explores theologies of suffering through engagement with five
theologians from across fifteen centuries of the Christian tradition: Gregory the Great,
Julian of Norwich, Jeremy Taylor, C.S. Lewis and Ivone Gebara. It uses a typological
method to examine the types of responses that are advocated by each theologian, and the
relation of their responses to five theological touchstones: Humanity, Sin and Evil; God’s
Providence; Salvation; Christ; and Eternal Life. The Introductory Chapter provides an
exploration of the definitions and etymologies of suffering and grief; a description of the
typological method; an examination of notable relevant literature; and an introduction to the
five thinkers. Chapter One is an examination of the life and writings of the 6th century pope
Gregory the Great, with particular focus on The Book of the Pastoral Rule and Moralia.
Gregory understands suffering to be a discipline sent by God to the faithful. Chapter Two
is an examination of the life and Revelations text of the 13th century English mystic Julian
of Norwich, who focuses on the reward God desires to give those who suffer. Chapter
Three is an examination of the life and writings of 17th century Anglican bishop Jeremy
Taylor, with particular focus on Holy Living and Holy Dying. Taylor places an emphasis on
the lifelong practice of faithfulness in preparation for death. Chapter Four is an
examination of the life and writings of 20th century Anglican theologian and author C. S.
Lewis, with particular attention to The Problem of Pain, The Chronicles of Narnia, A Grief
Observed, and Letters to Malcom. Lewis offers the example of one who is willing to
engage with the depth of his grief and to question God on his road to acceptance. Chapter
Five is an examination of the life and writings of contemporary Brazilian, feminist and
liberation theologian Ivone Gebara, with particular focus on her book Out of the Depths and
her engagement with Latin American author Isabel Allende. Gebara questions traditional
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understandings of suffering, as well as when suffering is to be accepted and when suffering
is unjust and should be combated. The Concluding Chapter constructs a contemporary
theology of suffering drawing on the insights and wrestling with the challenges raised by
the varying perspectives of the five theologians. The goal is to provide a hopeful and
nuanced way of thinking theologically about suffering for contemporary Christians. The
contemporary theology affirms the importance of the call, found in Gebara, to combat
unjust suffering through acts of love and mercy, while also affirming that acceptance of the
reality of endemic suffering, found in all five theologians, can provide one with
opportunities to grow spiritually, live more faithfully and to experience the blessings in the
midst of suffering that are a foretaste of heavenly bliss.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ................................................................................................................................5
Introduction: Methodology of Christian Theologies of Suffering across the Centuries.....7
Chapter 1:
Gregory on Grief: “The Great Teacher”............................................................................39
Chapter 2:
Faith through Suffering: An Examination of Julian of Norwich and Her Showings........77
Chapter 3:
Jeremy Taylor’s Rigorous, Life-long Approach to Living with Suffering and Grief......127
Chapter 4:
Permission to Grieve: C.S. Lewis and a Personal History of Sorrow.............................171
Chapter 5:
Transforming and Reframing Tradition:
A Theology of Suffering and Loss in the Work of Ivone Gebara...................................210
Conclusion: A Contemporary Theology of Suffering.....................................................249
Bibliography...................................................................................................................271
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PREFACE
Writing about grief is not an entirely cerebral or academic exercise. One does not
usually choose to write a dissertation on grief only out of intellectual curiosity. I am no
different. To grapple with questions of loss, grief, suffering and pain is an intellectual task
for me, but it is also a spiritual one. My desire to examine past and current approaches to
grief in the hopes of drawing on them for contemporary Christians arises out of my own
experiences, both personal and professional.
In the spring of 1993, when I was thirteen, I was diagnosed with bone cancer. I
underwent a year of treatment that included chemotherapy and surgery to remove my left
collarbone. I missed weeks of school, lost my hair, spent countless days on the couch
feeling as though I had the flu. Those were just the physical effects. Far more challenging
to deal with as a teenager were the spiritual wounds of cancer. Facing the realities of a life-
threatening illness and facing my own mortality meant that I lost my childhood innocence.
It meant the future no longer seemed a sure thing. It meant that my vision was narrowed to
the here and now. It meant that I was afraid tomorrow would not come.
Blessedly, I am cured and here to write these words. I did not have to face the
immediacy, only the possibility of my own death. Nonetheless, I grieved. I grieved over
my loss of innocence and the reality of my own mortality.
As an Episcopal priest, I have also seen this process of grief in the face of illness
and suffering in my professional work. As a hospital chaplain and a parish priest, I have
witnessed suffering and death. I have come to realize that the “grieving process” is not
limited to the times when someone dies – it is a normal part of the human response to
suffering.
The goal of this dissertation is to delve into the world of five theologians – Gregory
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the Great, Julian of Norwich, Jeremy Taylor, C.S. Lewis and Ivone Gebara – who span
much of the history of Christianity and to understand their perspectives and draw on their
approaches as a way of understanding what Christian responses to suffering look like. This
dissertation also endeavors to construct a contemporary theology that shows the possibility
of retaining elements of the acceptance that is strongly advocated for by Gregory, Julian
and Taylor, while also allowing the room to grieve advocated by Lewis and the call to fight
against unjust suffering that Gebara advocates.
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Introduction: Methodology of Christian Theologies of Suffering across the Centuries
Introduction
This work will examine the work of five theologians who have particular insight
into issues of grief: Gregory the Great, Julian of Norwich, Jeremy Taylor, C.S. Lewis and
Ivone Gebara. It is the intent of this dissertation to show that their writings offer ways of
thinking about and living with suffering that, in turn, can help offer a way for contemporary
Christians to accept the reality of suffering that is endemic to the human experience, while
also raising questions about when suffering ought not to be accepted and, in fact, ought to
be fought against.
Defining Suffering and Grief
First off, it is important to establish what is meant by suffering and grief, even
though (as shall be seen) each thinker in this dissertation has a distinct take on what
constitutes suffering and grief. It is perhaps best to start with suffering, as that is the
phenomenon that prompts grief. Whereas, grief is the psychological and spiritual response
to the experience of suffering. In order to really engage with “suffering,” it is important to
dig into what the verb “to suffer” means. The etymology of the word is “sub” (under) +
“ferre” (to bear).1 Etymologically, then, suffering is to bear under something. This sensing
of being “under” gets at an important aspect of suffering – the sense of something being
imposed. One definition in the OED is “To go or pass through, be subjected to, undergo,
experience (now usually something evil or painful),” and in its transitive sense, to suffer
also means “To have (something painful, distressing, or injurious) inflicted or imposed
upon one; to submit to with pain, distress, or grief.”2 To suffer, then, is to be the subject of
1“Suffer,” Oxford English Dictionary Online, 2nd Edition. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989). Accessed
September 7, 2010. http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50241626?
single=1&query_type=word&queryword=suffer&first=1&max_to_show=10
2Ibid.
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some difficult or painful experience.3
As noted above, Grief can be seen as the emotional, physical, and spiritual response
to an experience of loss. Indeed, the OED defines grief as “Mental pain, distress, or
sorrow” and even “Deep or violent sorrow.”4 Grief is the noun used to describe the
experience of the act of grieving, so it is, therefore, important to also examine the definition
and etymology of “grieve.” Etymologically, “grieve” has its roots in “gravis” (heavy) and
“grave.”5 The root of “gravis” connects with the understanding of suffering discussed
above, the sense of being under something, and adds the dimension of weight to that
burden. Having “grave” at its root, of course, gives grief connotations of death and
mortality.
The descriptive language of Nicholas Wolterstorff also provides an understanding of
suffering and grief from the perspective of one who suffers. He defines suffering as:
“When something prized or loved is ripped away or never granted – work, someone loved,
recognition of one’s dignity, life without physical pain – that is suffering.”6 Wolterstorff’s
powerful language is that of loss and absence, something taken away or never given, which
means that grief, then, is not limited only to the “grave”; it is experienced any time there is
“significant loss.”7
While it is possible to simply define grief as one’s response to suffering, it is not as
easy to simply define suffering as a burden which is imposed. As will be seen in subsequent
3This understanding is echoed in the Dictionary of Psychology, which defines suffering as “the experience of
pain or acute distress, either psychological or physical.” See “suffering” in APA Dictionary of Psychology.
Gary R. VandenBos, ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2007.
4“Grief.” Oxford English Dictionary Online, 2nd Edition..(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989). Accessed
September 7, 2010. http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50098724?
query_type=word&queryword=grief&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&result_place=1&search_i
d=2Qys-z6s5Y9-8638&hilite=50098724
5Ibid.
6Nicholas Wolterstorff. Lament for a Son. (Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans, 1987), 89.
7See “grief” in APA Dictionary of Psychology.
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discussion, the reality of suffering is more complicated. In the Westminster Dictionary of
Christian Ethics John Macquarrie defines suffering first and foremost as “the opposite of
action.” The entry goes on to explain that the experience of suffering is about undergoing
“a series of events initiated from the outside and leading to a state of affairs which is not
desired.”8 This goes along with an understanding of suffering as something imposed from
without, but Macquarrie does not leave it there. In defining suffering, Macquarrie also
touches on the important Christian theme, which has its roots in the sufferings of Christ, of
suffering as good or redemptive in nature. The question of whether, how or when suffering
can be redemptive (and even seen as a good) will be explored in greater detail below, but it
is an important question to note in establishing an understanding of suffering. Macquarrie’s
position is that “[b]ecause so much suffering has this apparently senseless character, it is
generally regarded as a duty to relieve suffering whenever possible.” Yet his view of
suffering’s redemptive value is not entirely negative. He also understands that there is an
intimate connection between suffering, love and sympathy. It is the experience of suffering
that allows one to more deeply feel love and sympathy. Even in this connection between
suffering and sympathy, one can see that suffering cannot be seen only as a negative
imposed from without.9
Context
Understanding the definitions and etymologies of the terms “suffering” and “grief”
provides a helpful foundation. They are, however, still two very broad terms that can
encompass a wide range of the human experience, and their roots and etymologies do not
necessarily dictate how they are used by writers. Suffering and grief also both connect to a
8John Macquarrie. “Suffering.” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. James F. Childress and John
Macquarrie, eds. (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1986), 608.
9Ibid.
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variety of other important theological issues that are beyond the scope of this dissertation.
Chiefly, perhaps, would be the issue of evil. Evil is an issue that has engaged theologians
and philosophers down through the centuries, particularly the question of theodicy: of
whether or not one can affirm the existence or benevolence of God in the midst of evil or
suffering. This dissertation does not focus on questions of theodicy and the existence or
benevolence of God, rather it focuses on the place suffering has in human life in
relationship with God.
The notion of evil does have relevance to the experience of suffering, and it is worth
acknowledging that suffering can be described as the result of encountering evil in its
different forms. A distinction between three kinds of evil: metaphysical, physical and
moral, is generally attributed to 17th century thinker Gottfried Leibniz in his work Theodicy.
According to Leibniz, “metaphysical evil” describes the fact that the world is in a state of
“imperfection;” it refers to the reality of existential evil in the world – the kind of evil that
happens and does not seem to have a direct or discernible cause. The second kind of evil is
that of “physical evil,” which Leibniz understands to be the experience of suffering.
Physical evil is what is experienced by humanity as a result of living in an imperfect world.
The third type of evil is that of “moral evil,” which is sin.10 It is the evil that is experienced
as a result of harmful actions by humanity itself. Theologian John Macquarrie shares this
distinction of evils, and particularly the understanding of “physical” or “natural” evil. For
Macquarrie, natural evil is the “inevitable accompaniment” to life in this world. Yet
Macquarrie draws the important distinction that natural evil is to be seen as “an instrument
of God’s justice, whereby he punishes the wicked.” For Macquarrie, natural evil is to be
understood (as it is for Gregory) as “an instrument of God’s education for the human
10Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Theodicy. (Lexington, KY: Bibliobazaar, 2007), 139.