Chlorine and food safety white paper

28 Pages·2002·1.5 MB·English

Chlorine and Food Safety White Paper
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Table of
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Impacts of Foodborne Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Trends in Foodborne Disease Outbreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Chlorination Protects Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
The Micro-Culprits of Foodborne Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Studies Indicate Contaminated Foods May Cause More Than Gastrointestinal Illness . . . . . . . .9
Human Infection with Foodborne Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Combating Foodborne Disease with Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Chlorine in Food Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
On the Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
In Food Processing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Meat and Poultry Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Dairy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Egg Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Fish and Seafood Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Fresh Produce Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Chlorine in Food Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Chlorine in Food Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Foodborne Disease Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Preface
“…illness due to contaminated food is perhaps the most widespread health problem
in the contemporary world and an important cause of reduced economic productivity.”
—Expert Committee on Food Safety convened by the World Health Organization and the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1983
This paper explores the role chlorine plays in
the efforts of industry, public health officials
and consumers to maintain the safety of the
global food supply. Chlorine and chlorine-
containing compounds are critical factors in food
safety all along the path leading from the farm to
the consumer’s plate.
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Executive
Summary
Chlorine plays a vital role in the safe
production, processing, transport and
preparation of foods of all varieties. “To date, no
other sanitizing agent has appeared which
competes with chlorine in all the areas needed for wide variety, with fewer preservatives (Zink,
safe food production” (McLaren, 2000). On the 1997). This demand fuels the importation of
farm, chlorinated water is used for irrigation and produce from countries with variable food safety
livestock watering to lower the risk of standards. It is true that, “in a globalized world,
contamination of crops and livestock. Chlorine we all swim in a single microbial sea”
solutions are used industrially to wash and sort (Brundtland, 2001).
fruits and vegetables. The dairy, poultry, egg and
As a result of changing demographics (e.g., the
meat industries use the chemical in numerous
aging “Baby Boomers”) and better health care, the
ways to prevent contamination that could lead to
elderly population is growing. Advances in
foodborne illness. Chlorine is used extensively in
medicine are also prolonging the lives of the
food processing and transport to disinfect surfaces
immunocompromised. These populations are
of all types (e.g., work surfaces, instruments,
statistically more vulnerable to foodborne illness.
machinery, containers) that contact edible
In addition, increasing numbers
products. In the effort to increase
of US residents eat restaurant-
food safety, researchers continue
Foodborne prepared foods, rendering
to find innovative uses for
themselves dependent on the
chlorine as food travels from “the
illnesses affect food handling and preparation
farm to the fork.”
procedures followed by these
millions in the
The challenges of safe food establishments.
production and delivery in the
United States
The US Food and Drug
21stcentury are unique in human
Administration recently
history. Opportunities for food annually.
announced a program designed
contamination are many. Some of
to establish a national baseline
these opportunities arise from
on the occurrence of foodborne
human negligence or ignorance of hygiene. In
disease risk factors within the retail segment of the
other cases they are a consequence of modern
food industry. Risk factors outlined are: food from
agricultural practices, food handling techniques,
unsafe sources; inadequate cooking; improper
changing patterns of food distribution or
holding temperature; contaminated equipment
changing consumer preferences and
and poor personal hygiene (US FDA, 2000).
demographics.
Combating foodborne diseases requires the
In this era of global trade, paths from the farm to constant vigilance of many segments of society
the fork have lengthened. Modern consumers and their awareness of the changing nature of the
demand year-round fresh fruits and vegetables of a challenge. In response to recent concerns about
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potential terrorist threats, US officials are calling
for a stronger public health infrastructure to
respond effectively to public health emergencies of
all types, including those related to contamination
of the food supply. This effort may provide better
links among local, state, regional and national
public health offices, and improve notification
and response regarding foodborne disease
outbreaks.
Although the US food supply is among the safest
in the world, foodborne illnesses affect millions in
the United States annually, causing thousands to
die. Accompanying the many conveniences of
modern life is an unfortunate sense of
investigation costs, work absence and lost human
complacency about food safety on the part of
potential. Chlorine is a highly effective yet
many consumers. Opportunities for food
inexpensive weapon available to control
contamination and cross-contamination abound
foodborne disease all over the world.
in home kitchens when consumers fail to practice
safe food preparation and handling. There are common foodborne pathogens, but the
foodborne “enemy” is not static. Microorganisms
In the developing world, foodborne disease is a
harbored in foods evolve and new ones emerge.
major cause of infant and childhood mortality.
These may spread rapidly over great distances by
According to the World Health Organization,
food transportation mechanisms. Surveillance of
children under the age of five suffer approximately
foodborne pathogens by government and public
1.5 billion cases of diarrhea annually, resulting in
health monitoring of outbreaks, once a relatively
over 3 million deaths (WHO, 1997). A
simple task, is now highly complex as people
significant proportion of diarrheal diseases are of
travel widely and food is shipped globally.
foodborne origin. (Untreated or inadequately
Nevertheless, new technologies afford sensitive
disinfected drinking water also accounts for a
tracking techniques and rapid global electronic
large proportion of diarrheal diseases.) Two to
reporting.
three percent of non-fatal foodborne diseases in
developing countries result in long-term health
consequences. The economic costs of foodborne
diseases are huge and include treatment and case
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Introduction
Impacts of Foodborne Disease
The US food supply is among the safest in the
world. The overall high quality of life enjoyed by
Americans can be attributed, in part, to an
abundant, nutritious and relatively risk-free food absence and lost human potential due to long-
supply. Nevertheless, every year an estimated 76 term damaging effects (WHO, 1999). Further,
million people in the United States become sick, developing nations, which experience the highest
300,000 are hospitalized and approximately 5,000 rates of foodborne disease, can least afford to
die as a result of the basic human activity of eating address the problem effectively. Although the
(US Centers for Disease Control, 2001a). The safety of the US food supply is generally not a
annual economic cost of foodborne diseases to the subject of concern, complacency is a dangerous
US economy is estimated to be several billion attitude. Combating foodborne diseases requires
dollars (Satcher, 1996). the constant vigilance of many segments of society
and their awareness of the changing nature of the
Ingestion of foods contaminated with bacteria,
challenge.
viruses and parasites is a major world public
health issue, especially in developing countries. Safe practices are critical at every stage of food
Particularly susceptible are infants, young production and handling, all along the path
children, the elderly, pregnant women and leading to, and including, the consumer’s kitchen.
immunocompromised individuals. According to Opportunities for food contamination and cross-
the World Health Organization (WHO), contamination abound in home kitchens.
foodborne diarrhea is one of the most common Consumer awareness of safe food preparation and
illnesses of children and one of the major causes storage practices helps guard against foodborne
of infant and childhood mortality in developing illness originating in the home.
countries. The WHO estimates that children age
five and younger suffer 1.5 billion episodes of Trends in Foodborne Disease
diarrhea annually from consumption of both Outbreak
unsanitary drinking water and tainted foods, The majority of foodborne illness cases arise from
resulting in over 3 million premature deaths. the consumption of foods of animal origin. Foods
Repeated childhood bouts of diarrhea have dire traditionally implicated in outbreaks include
long-term consequences including malnutrition, undercooked meat and poultry, seafood and
increased vulnerability to many diseases and unpasteurized milk. More recently, scientists have
stunted physical and mental development. The discovered pathogens in foods once believed
WHO estimates that approximately 2–3% of incapable of supporting their growth. Such foods
cases of foodborne disease outbreak lead to long- include eggs, juices, tomatoes, apple cider and
term ill health (WHO, 1999). lettuce (Prier and Solnick, 2000). While scientists
and health experts work to understand, prevent
Economically, foodborne diseases exact a huge
and combat food contamination, their efforts
price in treatment, case investigation, work
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variable food safety standards. It is believed that
the number of foreign food items sold in the US
increased by 50%, from 2.7 million items in 1997
to 4.1 million in 2000 (Winter, 2001). Finally,
have not kept pace with certain modern according to Collins (1997), the typical American
developments that exacerbate the health problem. over the age of eight is eating four restaurant
Foodborne illness originating from eating meals every week. Increased consumption of
contaminated fruits and vegetables, already restaurant-prepared meals increases the potential
prevalent in developing countries, is becoming for sickness resulting from improper food
increasingly common in developed countries handling in restaurant kitchens.
(WHO, 1998). There are several possible reasons
for this. The increasing globalization of food trade Chlorination Protects Public
means that contaminated fruits and vegetables Health
may be widely distributed. The susceptibility of Historically, chlorine is one of mankind’s most
foods to infection increases with lengthening trusted weapons in the war against infectious
transit times. waterborne diseases. Drinking water chlorination,
first introduced in Great Britain in the early
Further, as the elderly population increases, the
1900’s and shortly afterwards in the US,
average resistance to foodborne disease decreases,
immediately improved the quality of life wherever
resulting in a greater portion of the population
it was employed. Chlorination and filtration of
succumbing to illness from tainted foods. Not
raw water are responsible for the virtual
only is the elderly population increasing, but also,
elimination of serious waterborne diseases such as
by virtue of rapidly paced medical advances, many
cholera, typhoid, dysentery and hepatitis A
more immunocompromised individuals are
(White, 1986). LIFEmagazine, in rating the 100
surviving. These include people with chronic
most important historical events of the past
rheumatological disease, cancer, solid-organ
millennium, called drinking water chlorination
transplantation and AIDS (WHO, 1998). Such
and filtration “…probably the most significant
individuals’ compromised immune systems make
public health advance of the millennium”
them more vulnerable to foodborne illness.
(Anonymous, 1997).
Changes in eating habits also may contribute to
While chlorine’s role in protecting against
increasing numbers of cases of foodborne illness
waterborne disease is widely recognized, chlorine
stemming from contaminated produce. Many are
also plays a vital role in the safe production of a
heeding the advice of health experts to increase
wide variety of foods.
their consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables.
The modern consumer demands a wide variety of
these products year-round, and with fewer
preservatives (Zink, 1997). This demand fuels the
importation of produce from countries with
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The Micro-Culprits of
Foodborne Illness
Bacteria and viruses are the most common
causes of foodborne illacness; protozoa may
also cause sickness. Among bacteria,
Campylobacter, Salmonella, E. coli 0157:H7and Hepatitis Ais a virus that infects the liver and
Vibriocause the majority of foodborne sickness causes the disease hepatitis A. Toxoplasma gondii
cases. The Norwalk viruses (also known as and Cryptosporidium parvumare common
caliciviruses), are common culprits in foodborne parasitic protozoa that cause foodborne illness.
illness, but are rarely diagnosed due to the Table 1 lists pertinent information on each of
unavailability of the diagnostic laboratory test. these common microorganisms.
Table 1: Common Foodborne Pathogens1
Pathogen Infection Symptoms in Humans Pathogen Reservoir Cause of Infection
Bacteria
Campylobacter Fever, diarrhea, abdominal Intestines of healthy Eating undercooked
cramps, nausea, vomiting; birds; Raw poultry chicken or foods
Most commonly identified cause meat, cattle and contaminated with juices
of diarrheal illness in the world; sometimes swine. from undercooked
May cause Guillain-Barre chicken;
syndrome. In developing countries:
unchlorinated drinking
water supplies, e.g.,
wells, contaminated
with poultry feces.
Salmonella Fever, diarrhea, abdominal Intestines of birds, Spread to humans by a
cramps, headache. reptiles and mammals. variety of foods of
animal origin, e.g.,
undercooked poultry,
contaminated eggs
(eaten raw) and raw milk;
May invade the
bloodstream in persons
of poor health or
weakened immune
systems, causing life-
threatening infections.
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