Chinese History: A New Manual

1147 Pages·2013·98.259 MB·English

by  Endymion Wilkinson

Chinese History
A New Manual
Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series 84
C H
hinese istory
A N M
ew anual
Endymion Wilkinson
Published by the Harvard University Asia Center
for the Harvard-Yenching Institute
Distributed by Harvard University Press
Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London
2013
After graduating in Oriental Studies from Cambridge University (BA 1964) Endymion Wilkinson
taught at the Peking Institute of Languages (1964-66). He gained a Princeton PhD in Chinese
history in 1970 and lectured at London University before joining the External Relations Depart­
ment of the European Commission in 1974. During postings in Tokyo, Brussels, Bangkok, and
Beijing he continued to research and publish on Chinese history (and also on Japan). After serving
as EU Ambassador to China (1994-2001) he returned to academe to complete the present work.
Book design, composition, and indexes by the author
Fonts: Linotype Georgia Pro Light and Microsoft FangSong
© 2012 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College
Printed in the United States of America
Second, revised printing
The Harvard-Yenching Institute, founded in 1928 and headquartered at Harvard University, is a
foundation dedicated to the advancement of higher education in the humanities and social sci-
ences in East and Southeast Asia. The Institute supports advanced research at Harvard by faculty
members of certain Asian universities and doctoral studies at Harvard and other universities by
junior faculty at the same universities. It also supports East Asian studies at Harvard through
contributions to the Harvard-Yenching Library and publication of the Harvard Journal of Asiatic
Studies and books on premodern East Asian history and literature.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wilkinson, Endymion Porter.
Chinese history : a new manual / Endymion Wilkinson. ~ [New edition],
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-674-06715-8 (alk. paper)
1. China—History—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Harvard University.
Asia Center
DS735.W695 2012
951-dc23 2011285309
Last figure below indicates year of this printing
22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13
PREFACE
Given the length of Chinese recorded history and given the language requirements, there are
moments when students may feel that the journey is impossibly long. I certainly felt that way
from time to time when I began to study Chinese history 50 years ago. Like so many others I
kept notes on books read, references consulted, and solutions to problems encountered. These
notes were published in a preliminary form in 1973 (Harvard East Asian Monograph 49). The
Research Guide (for that was the ambitious title chosen) was reprinted many times, but by the
1990s a complete overhaul was needed. Accordingly, I produced a fresh manual in 1998 (and re­
vised and enlarged it in 2000). It soon became the top selling title in both the Harvard East Asian
and the Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series. But the fields of Chinese history and ar­
cheology have continued to change rapidly during the last decade, and it is these developments
that the New Manual seeks to capture.
What could be revised and brought up to date of the previous edition (2000) has been incor­
porated into the New Manual, with a farther one million words of content added in the process.
As a result, the manual is now 1.5 million words in length (roughly the equivalent of nine 400-
page monographs) and over three times the length that it was in 2000. However, by using a
slightly larger trim size, a two-column format, and a smaller typeface it has still been possible to
print it in a single volume and thus keep the price down.
The aim of the New Manual is to introduce students of Chinese civilization and history to the
different types of transmitted, excavated, and artifactual sources from prehistoty to the twen^^
century. Accordingly, it examines the context in which the sources were produced，preserved,
and received, as well as the problems of research and interpretation associated with them, and
includes a selection of the best, most up-to-date secondary works. Because of the central role that
the writing of history played (and continues to play) in Chinese politics and culture, special at­
tention is devoted to the strengths and weaknesses of Chinese historiography.
The New Manual comprises 14 book-length parts subdivided into a total of 76 chapters.
Books 1-9 present the sources by subject: (1) Language; (2) People; (3) Geography and the En­
vironment; (4) Governing and Educating; (5) Ideas and Beliefs, Literature, and the Fine Arts; (6)
Agriculture, Food, and Drink; (7) Technology and Science; (8) Trade; and (9) Historiography.
Books 10-12 present pre-history and the sources by dynasty or group of dynasties (sources for
the first half of the twentieth century are in Book 13). Book 14 is on historical bibliography. For
those not familiar with the terminology and conventions of Chinese manuscripts, printing, and
book culture this might be a good place to start.
Digital resources are covered throughout. Where possible information is tabulated (there are
274 tables and in-text boxes). As an aid to navigation readers will find 6,000 cross references
that identify full citations and related or more detailed information on a topic. The indexes con­
tain over 20,000 entries.
It is my hope that the Nèu; Mmi/a/ will succeed in demonstrating that the road to a better
understanding of Chinese civilization and history is not as daunting as it sometimes appears.
Acknowledgments Sl Thanks
It took 12 years to complete Chinese history: A new manual. The task would have been impossi­
ble without the support and encouragement that only great humanities centers such as Harvard
or Peking University can offer. I should like to thank Ezra Vogel, Peter Bol, Elizabeth Perry, and
William Kirby and their colleagues for welcoming me to Harvard in 2001. At Peking University,
my thanks go to Deng Xiaonan 邓 小南 and the three successive deans of the history department，
Wang Tianyou 王天有，Niu Dayong 牛大勇，and Gao Yi 高毅.
While researching and writing the New manual I incurred many debts. First to those who
commented on draft chapters or sections: Alexander Akin, Patrick Bonneville, Cheng Yi’nong 成
一农 ，Mark Elliott, Rowan Flad, Hou Xudong 侯旭东 ，Lei Wen 雷闻 ，Victor Mair, Nathan Sivin，
Takashima Ken’ichi 高嶋謙一，Eugene Wang, Wu Jiang 吴 疆，and Zhao Dongmei 赵 冬梅.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS & THANKS
Others very kindly sent me drafts of their own work in progress or answered my questions at
length. They include Asami Yöji 淺見洋二，Thomas Barfield, Tim Barrett, Tom Bartlett, Christo-
pher Beckwith, Peter Bol, Dan Boucher, Cynthia Brokaw, William Callahan, Lucille Chia, Hok-
lam Chan, Cheng Yi’nong 成一农 ，W. South Coblin, Tim Connor, Deng Xiaonan 邓 小南，Albert
Dien, Ronald Egan， David Goodrich, Charles Hartman, Hashimoto Keizö 橋本敬造， Hu Ping-
sheng 胡平生，Huang Xingtao 黃兴 涛 ， Huang Xingzong 黃興宗，Elisabeth Kaske，Kawashima
Shin 川島真 ，Johannes Kurz, Jack Langlois, Diana Lary，D. C. Lau，Li Boqian 李伯谦 ，Li Hong-
wei 李宏为 ，Wai-yee Li, Liu Zongdi 刘 宗迪，Michael Loewe，Eugenio Menegon，Thomas Mul-
laney，Susan Naquin, Peng Gang 彭罔I)，Irina Popova, Ren Li 任立，Boris Riftin，Anthony Saich，
Nicolas Standaert, Hans Ulrich Vogel, Geoffrey Wade, Wang Guangyue 王光越，Wang Qisheng
王奇生， Wang Zhenzhong 王振忠，Pierre-Étienne Will, John Wong, Silas Wu， Robin Yates,
Zhang Sheng 张 升，Zhang Zhilian 張芝聯,Zhou Ailian 周愛蓮，and Zhu Fenghan 朱凤 翰.
During a six-month period in 2004,1 was fortunate to have a research assistant, Lee Tsong-
han 李宗翰.If only he could have continued his excellent work longer, but he häd a PhD thesis to
finish. I am very grateful to Ren Li for preparing the rough drafts of the two longest indexes
(Names and Books).
Many readers of the previous edition sent their questions or suggestions for improvements.
Of these the most assiduous was Greg Bosco, who over the course of several years sent more
than 2,000 comments.
My hearfelt thante for the patience and ad\âce of Kristen Wanner at the Publications Center,
Harvard University Asia Center and her team of proof readers. Thanks also to William Hammell
for checking the orthography of the Japanese citations. At the end of the day I alone am respon-
sible for any errors that may still remain.
Endymion Wilkinson
September 28,2012
Note to the Second, Revised Printing
The second printing contains an additional 50 important works or editions most of which ap­
peared between October 2012 and March 2013. Several sections have been revised and one, now
titled Chinese as a Global Language? (§1.4) has been rewritten. Finally, over 400 typos and a
number of careless errors have been corrected. My thanks to Robert Graham for guiding the
second, revised printing to ä successful completion and to Guo Jue 郭廷 and Chen Tian 陈 甜 for
alerting me to several mistakes.
EW
March 4, 2013
Contents
Preface v
Acknowledgments v
Contents vii
Boxes xiu
Tables xv
Style-Sheet xuii
Introduction
A.1 Periodization l Dictionaries 73
A.2 Dynasties 3 6.1 Introduction 73
A.3 Absolute Dates 9 6.2 Dictionaries of Classical Chinese 77
A.4 Long Periods Of Time 10 6.3 Dictionaries of Modern Chinese 85
A.5 Grade-School History 11 6.4 Comprehensive Dictionaries 87
A.6 European Chronologies 12 6.5 Dialect Dictionaries 92
A.7 Dynasties of Japan, Korea & Vietnam 12 6.6 Special-Purpose Dictionaries 92
6.7 Dictionaries of Japanese 93
1 Language
2 People
1 History of the Chinese Language 17
1.1 Introduction 17 7 Family & Kin 95
1.2 Pronunciation, Tones & Rhymes 27 7.1 Introduction 95
1.3 Dialects 28 7.2 Relationship Terminology 100
1.4 CJhincse as a Global Language? 31 7.3 Addressing or Referring to Relatives 103
7.4 Fictive Use of Relationship Terms 104
2 Script & Calligraphy 32
7.5 Relationship Terms: Sources 104
2.1 Words, Syllables, Characters 32
7.6 Non-Kin Terms of Address 105
2.2 Evolution of Script Forms 33
7.7 Nonverbal Salutations 107
2.3 The Components of a Character 34
7.8 Family Instructions, Wills, Testaments 110
2.4 Types of Character 35
2.5 The Number of Characters 36 Personal Names 112
2.6 Learning the Characters Today 38 8.1 Historical Stages: Overview 113
2.7 Word Families 40 8.2 Clan, Lineage & Family Names 114
2.8 Studying Classical & Ancient Scripts 41 8.3 Given Names 118
2.9 Variant Characters 42 8.4 Commoners’ Given Names 123
2.10 Calligraphy 47 8.5 Selecting a Given Name 128
8.6 Childhood Names 129
3 Translation from Chinese 48
8.7 Ranking Names 133
3.1 Introduction 48
8.8 Courtesy Names 136
3.2 Borrowings From Chinese 55
8.9 Alternative Names 138
4 Transcription of Chinese 58
8.10 Nicknames 140
4.1 Introduction 58
8.11 Office Names & Other Forms of Address 141
4.2 Systems Based on Nanjing Mandarin 59
8.12 Illegitimate or Adopted Children 141
4.3 Systems Based on Beijing Mandarin 59
8.13 Name Taboos 141
4.4 Hanyu Pinyin & its Antecedents 60
8.14 Many People, Few Names 143
5 Translation into Chinese 62 8.15 Bibliography 144
5.1 Introduction 62 8.16 Foreign Names in Chinese 145
5.2 Chinese Borrowings 64 8.17 Manchu, Mongol, Tibetan & Tiirkic Names 145
5.3 Pidgin English 72 8,18 Vietnamese, Korean & Japanese Names 146
CONTENTS
9 Biography 148 15.10 Regional Names 230
9.1 Commemorative Writings 15.11 Province Names 232
9.2 Official Résumés 49 15.12 Short Names for Provinces & Cities 235
1
9.3 Lfez/man 列傳 15.13 Imperial Mausolea Names 235

9.4 Chronological Biographies 50 15.14 Street Names 236
9.5 Biographies in Local Gazetteers 1 15.15 Rivers, Lakes, Seas & Oceans 237
9.6 Biographical Collections 51 15.16 Toponym Difficulties 239
9.7 Biographical Reference Works 15.17 How to Identify Historical Places 243
1
9.8 Diaries, Autobiographies & Letters 53 15.18 Readings 246

9.9 Biographical Topoi
16 Urban History 247
9.10 Stages of Life 153
16.1 Capitals 247
9.11 Age 16.2 City Construction 248
9.12 Size Matters 54
1 16.3 City Maps 249
9.13 Secondary Studies
16.4 City Life & Soundscapes 249

55
10 Women’s Histories 16.5 State of the Field 250
1
10.1 Women’s Names
10.2 Pre-Qin 57 4 Governing & Educating
10.3 Women in Imperial China X
59 17 Central & Local Government 253
10.4 Research Guides
17.1 Central Government 253
11 Clothing & Hairstyles 160 17.2 Yamen 258
11.1 Textiles 17.3 The Metropolitan Region 259

11.2 Clothing Styles 60 17.4 Local & Border Administration 259
11.3 Hairstyles 1 17.5 Recruitment, Ranking & Emoluments 265
11.4 References 70 17.6 Official Titles 266
1 17.7 The Ups & Downs of an Official Career 267
3 Geography & Environment
72 18 Titles & Names of Rulers 268
12 Zhongguo, China & the Chinese People 18.1 Title in Office 268
1
12.1 Zhongguo 18.2 Honorifics 269

12.2 China & the Chinese People 18.3 Temple Titles 269
73
1 18.4 Royal & Imperial Posthumous Titles 270
13 Environmental History
13.1 Climate Change 73 18.5 Insulting Titles 271
18.6 Bad Last Rulers 271
13.2 Natural Disasters & Famines 1
13.3 Distribution of Wild Animals 75 18.7 Imperial Name Taboos 272
18.8 Self-Designations of Rulers 275
13.4 Forests
76 18.9 Addressing the Ruler 275
13.5 Loessification & Desertification
1
18.10 Referring to a Ruler 275
13.6 Water Control
79 18.11 Era Names 276
13.7 Land Use & Environmental Impacts
13.8 Journals 1 18.12 Imperial Family 276
18.13 Tables of Chinese Rulers 277
14 Maps, Geographical Studies & Gazetteers
80 19 Titles of Nobility & Elite Posthumous Titles 277
14.1 Maps 1
19.1 Titles of Nobility 277
14.2 Geographical Studies 80
19.2 Elite Posthumous Titles 278
14.3 Local Gazetteers
1
14.4 Historical Atlases 82 20 Official Communications 280

20.1 Edicts 280
15 Toponyms 214
15.1 Structure, Types, Euphony, Numbers 185 20.2 Hortatory Edicts & Slogans 280
15.2 Descriptive Toponyms 2 4 20.3 Memorials 283
818 20.4 Lateral Communications 284
15.3 Possessive Toponyms
20.5 Gazettes 284
15.4 Commemorative Toponyms 12 7
20.6 Aids for Documentary Chinese 284
15.5 Commendatory Toponyms 1
15.6 Folk-Etymology Toponyms 2 9 21 Census & Taxation 285
1
15.7 Offensive & Taboo Toponyms 21.1 Registers & Policies 285
15.8 Manufactured Toponyms 219 21.2 Census Terminology 286
15.9 Alternative Toponyms 1 21.3 Land Taxation & Services 288
2 1

1
191
2 5viii

921
2 8
93
228

2 9
927
97
2
98
1
2
99
X
00

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00
1
02

X02

1
03
1
03

207

09
2
13
2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2
CONTENTS
21.4 Demographic Change 289 26.5 Research Tools 344
21.5 Reactions to Population Growth 289 27 Foreign Relations 345
21.6 Population in the Republic 290 27.1 The Chinese World Order 345
21.7 Population in the PRC 290 27.2 Sino-Steppe Relations 347
21.8 Demographic Studies 291 27.3 Naming the Barbarians 349
22 Education & Examinations 292 27.4 Border Regions & Foreign Peoples 355
22.1 Old Ways of Learning the Characters 292 27.5 India 358
22.2 Examinations for Officialdom 299 27.6 The West & Westerners 358
22.3 Preparations for the Exams 301 27.7 The Yi Controversy 359
22.4 Publishing the Exam Results 301 27.8 Foreign Sources on China 362
22.5 How Efficient Were the Examiners? 301
5 Ideas, Beliefs, Literature & Fine Arts
22.6 Sources 302
23 Law 305 28 The Confucian Classics 365
23.1 Introduction 305 28.1 Introduction: Intellectual History 365
23.2 Shang-Sui 307 28.2 Ethics in the Three-Character Classic 367
23.3 Law Codes: Tang-Qing 309 28.3 Biographies of Confucius 367
23.4 Administrative Laws & Regulations 310 28.4 Formation of the Confucian Canon 368
23.5 Punishments 311 28.5 Classification of the Classics 371
28.6 Apocryphal Texts 371
23.6 Cases 312
28.7 Commenting the Classics 372
23.7 Customary Law 312
28.8 Stone-Carved Classics 373
23.8 Guides & Handbooks 313
28.9 Printing the Classics 374
23.9 Law in Fiction 313
28.10 Translating the Classics 375
23.10 Law in the Twentieth Century 313
28.11 Reference Works 376
23.11 Journals 314
29 Religion 378
23.12 Website 314
29.1 Introduction 378
24 War 314
29.2 Common Religion 379
24.1 Wars, Campaigns, Battles & Sieges 314
29.3 Daoism 380
24.2 Uprisings & Rebellions 317
29.4 Buddhism 384
24.3 Foreign & Civil Wars: 1840-1949 318 29.5 Islam 394
24.4 Strategic Topography 318 29.6 Zoroastrianism & Manichaeism 395
24.5 Military Statistics 319 29.7 Christianity & Judaism 395
24.6 Rhetoric & Reality 321
30 Literature 401
24.7 Military Terms 322
30.1 Introduction 401
24.8 The Art of War 323
30.2 Poetry 401
24.9 Recruitment & Military Exams 326 30.3 General Anthologies 404
24.10 Army Organization 327 30.4 Collected Works of Individuals 406
24.11 Military Technology to Late Qing 328 30.5 Literary Criticism 407
24.12 Great Walls 329 30.6 Literary Quotations 409
24.13 Military Provisions 331 30.7 Guides & Research Tools 409
24.14 Sports & Games 331 30.8 Bibliographies of Translations 410
24.15 Primary Sources on the Military 334 31 Vernacular Literature & Folklore 411
25 Migration & Travel 336 31.1 Vernacular Literature 411
25.1 Internal Migration 336 31.2 Folklore 414
25.2 Becoming Chinese 337 32 Fine Arts 415
25.3 External Migration 338 32.1 Painting, Portraits, Sculpture & Forgery 415
25.4 Travel & Travel Literature 339 32.2 Seals 421
25.5 Travel: Titles by Period 341 32.3 Ceramic Inscriptions 422
26 Minorities 341 33 Architecture 422
26.1 Languages 341 33.1 Fengshui 422
26.2 Written Sources: Minority Languages 342 33.2 Building Construction 423
26.3 Ethnoarcheology 344 33.3 Furniture: From Mats to Chairs 425
26.4 Anthropology & Ethnology 344 33.4 Imperial Parks & Villas 426
ix
CONTENTS
33.5 Inscribed Landscapes 428 38.10 Magical & Auspicious Numbers 485
34 Music 430 38.11 Numerological Mnemonics 487
34.1 Outline 431 38.12 Number Codes & Riddles 488
34.2 Research Tools 432 38.13 Wrong Numbers 433
38.14 Common Causes of Conflision 489
6 Agriculture, Food & Drink 38.15 Misleading Statistics 489
38.16 Sources on Chinese Mathematics 491
35 Agriculture 433 39 Astrology, Astronomy & Calendars 492
35.1 Agricultural Archeology 433
39.1 Astrology & Astronomy 492
35.2 Early Almanacs 436 39.2 The Solar Calendar 494
35.3 Agricultural Treatises 436
39.3 The Sexagenary Cycle 496
35.4 Research Tools 438
39.4 Months, Xun , Weeks & Days 498
36 Food & Drink 440 39.5 Calendrical Difficulties 501
36.1 Ten Keys to Chinese Cuisine 441 39.6 Imperial Almanacs 502
36.2 Prehistoric Diet 442 39.7 The Taiping Calendar 505
36.3 Zhou to Han 442 39.8 Buddhist, Muslim & Other Calendars 505
36.4 Han 443 39.9 Twentieth-Century Calendars 507
36.5 Han to Tang 444 39.10 Calendars in Japan, Korea & Vietnam 507
36.6 Song 445 39.11 Recording Years 509
36.7 Ming-Qing 445 39.12 Dates & Their Conversion 519
36.8 Commoners 447 39.13 Chronologies & Calendrical Concordances 521
36.9 Salt 447 39.14 Events & Event Mnemonics 522
36.10 Sugar 449 39.15 Festivals & Holidays 524
36.11 Beverages 449 39.16 Fate Calculation 528
36.12 Tea 450 39.17 Primary & Secondary Sources 530
36.13 Dairy Products 453
40 Timekeeping 532
36.14 Opium & Tobacco 453
40.1 Introduction 532
36.15 Regional Cuisines 455
40.2 Divisions of the Day: Shang & Zhou 533
36.16 Restaurants 457
40.3 The 100-Mark System 533
36.17 Methods, Implements & Inventions 458
40.4 The Curfew & the Night Watch 535
36.18 Naming Chinese Dishes 462
40.5 The 12 Double-Hour System 537
36.19 Food & the Language of Love 463
40.6 Telling the Time (Han to Qing) 539
36.20 Primary Sources 463
40.7 Neighboring Countries 540
36.21 Modern Research Tools & Studies 464
40.8 Matching 100-fe 刻 with 12-Cherî 辰 540
40.9 Qing Reforms 540
7 Technology & Science 40.10 Republican Time 541
40.11 Time in the Japanese Empire 542
37 The Historical Context 467
40.12 Time in the Peoples Republic 542
37.1 Priorities & Approaches 467
37.2 Science & Society 468 41 Medicine 543
37.3 7ïa叩o叩Kicn’uni天工開物 470 41.1 Excavated Texts 543
37.4 Priority of Invention 471 41.2 Transmitted Works 544
41.3 Longevity Techniques 547
37.5 Science and Civilisation in China 473
41.4 Bibliography 548
37.6 Research Tools 475
41.5 Modern Studies 549
37.7 The Transfer of Modern Science 477
38 Numbers & Statistics 480 8 Trade Topics
38.1 Base 10 481
38.2 The Earliest Numbers 481 42 Weighing & Measuring 551
38.3 Cardinal Numbers 481 42.1 Terminology of Weights & Measures 552
38.4 Ordinal Numbers 482 42.2 Pre-Qin Weights & Measures 552
38.5 Extremely Large Numbers 483 42.3 Han to Early Qing Weights & Measures 554
38.6 Extremely Small Numbers 483 42.4 Historic Values 556
38.7 Fractions 484 42.5 Weighing & Measuring Instruments 556
38.8 Approximate Numbers 484 42.6 Cultivated-Land Measures 557
38.9 Hyperbolic Numbers 484 42.7 Special Measures 558
x
CONTENTS
42.8 Treaty-Port Weights & Measures 558 51 Digests of Government Institutions 645
42.9 Weighing & Measuring 559 51.1 Hufyao 會要 & Hu沾an 會典 645
42.10 Twentieth Century Reforms 562 51.2 Shftonp 十通 646
42.11 Sources, References & Studies 563 52 Miscellaneous Histories 648
43 Money & Prices 564 52.1 Introduction 648
43.1 Money 564 52.2 Pre-Qin&Han 649
43.2 Prices 572 52.3 End of Han to Tang 649
52.4 Tang-Yuan 649
44 Notes on Industry & Trade 574
52.5 Ming-Qing 649
44.1 Industry 574
44.2 Internal Trade 574 53 Biß 牵 記 650
44.3 External Overland Trade 577 53.1 Development of the Genre 650
44.4 Maritime Trade 580 53.2 Biji Databases & Indexes 651
44.5 Official Supervision 584 53.3 Biji Fiction 651
44.6 Marine Archeology 589 54 Popular Perceptions of History 652
54.1 History Dramatized 652
9 History
54.2 Informal History 653
45 Modern Histories, Guides & Databases 592
45.1 Modern Histories 592 10 Pre-Qin
45.2 Guides & Readers 594
55 Archeology 656
45.3 Databases & Encyclopedias 597
55.1 Chinese Archeology 656
46 Sources, Genres & Historiography 598 55.2 The Current Archeological Scene 658
46.1 Primary & Secondary Sources 598 55.3 Archeological Science 659
46.2 Archives 600 55.4 Research Tools 660
46.3 Published Archival & Other Sources 602
56 Prehistory 662
46.4 Private Documents 602
56.1 Homo Erectus 662
46.5 Main Genres of Historical Writing 603
56.2 Neolithic Cultures 662
46.6 Historiography 603
56.3 Prehistoric Signs & Symbols 665
47 Official Records & the History Office 608 56.4 Sage Kings & Cultural Heroes 671
47.1 Overview 608 56.5 Ancient Chronology 673
47.2 Court Annalistic Works 610 56.6 Doubting Antiquity 675
48 Annals 612 56.7 Recent Chronological Studies 676
48.1 Chunqiu 春秋 & Zhushu Jinian 竹書紀年 612 56.8 Sources & Studies of Myths 677
48.2 Annals: Han to Tang 614 57 Xia-Shang 夏商 678
48.3 Zfz/zf 7bng;ïcm 資治通鑑 615 57.1 Xia 678
48.4 Continuations of the Zizhi Tongjian 617 57.2 Shang 679
48.5 Gtogmuft'綱目體 617 57.3 Shang Oracle-Bone Inscriptions 681
48.6 Continuations of the Gangmu 619 57.4 Regional Early Bronze Age Cultures 687
48.7 Simplifications of the Gangmu 620
58 Zhou 周 688
48.8 Annals Written in the Song & Later 620
58.1 Periodization Terminology Defined 688
49 Standard Histories 620
58.2 Bronze Inscriptions 689
49.1 Overview 621
58.3 Inscriptions on Bone, Jade, Pottery & Stone 692
49.2 Origins & Later Developments 622
58.4 Warring States Chiijïan 楚簡 693
49.3 Table of the Histories 625
58.5 The Chu Silk Manuscript 695
49.4 Printed Sets of the Histories 627
58.6 Zhou Transmitted Texts 695
49.5 Main Editions of the Histories 629
58.7 Later Sources on the Pre-Qin 698
49.6 Abbreviations & Excerpts 630
58.8 Zhou Archeology 699
49.7 Studies, Supplements & Reference Tools 631
58.9 Zhou Research Tools 699
49.8 Treatises 634
49.9 Who Read the Histories? 636
11 Qin-Wudai
49.10 Evaluation of the Histories 642
49.11 References & Further Readings 644 59 Qin-Han 秦漢 703
49.12 The Language of the Histories 644 59.1 Main Sources (1): S/zÿî•史記 704
50 Topically Arranged Histories 644 59.2 Main Sources (2): Hcms/îi/ 漢書 711
xi