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China’s Foreign Policy and Practice This book is one of the first wide-ranging surveys of China’s foreign policy and practice from the 16th century to the present day from a Chinese perspective. A modern history of China’s interaction with major powers, it throws new light on the events and issues of major interest, clarifies possible points of ambiguity and misunderstanding, and brings the reader up to date about some of the current issues of contention in China’s international relations. China’s Foreign Policy and Practice: • Presents a unique account of Chinese statecraft and foreign policy from the vantage point of an insider who has spent years participating in the decision- making process at the national level; • Paints a larger picture of China’s interaction with the world, connecting wars, negotiations, treaties, and boundary settlements with its neighbours; • Focuses on policy evolution in specific areas, such as trade, regional diplomacy, dispute settlement, crisis management, and engagement with major powers; • Draws on Chinese records and publications that may not be readily accessible, as well as the latest memoirs and declassified documents; • Is a nuanced, comprehensive and accessible guide for students of international politics as well as general readers interested in China. A unique history of China in world affairs, this book will be essential reading for students of politics and international relations, history, foreign policy, diplomacy, China studies, and Asian studies. Wenguang Shao’s international career has spanned academia, government, and business. In the 1980s, he taught in Beijing as a university lecturer and worked in New York as a simultaneous interpreter with the U.N. He was a senior diplomat in China’s foreign service in the 1990s before he moved into television media in Hong Kong and Britain, doubling as a consulting senior fellow at I.I.S.S. (2015–2017). He holds an M.A. degree from the Fletcher School and a D.Phil. from the University of Oxford. He does consultancy work in his retirement and divides his time between London, Beijing, and Hong Kong. China’s Foreign Policy and Practice A Survey Wenguang Shao Cover image by sdlgzps / Getty Images First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Wenguang Shao The right of Wenguang Shao to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Shao, Wenguang, author. Title: China’s foreign policy and practice: a survey/Wenguang Shao. Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022025945 (print) | LCCN 2022025946 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032035536 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032293264 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003301073 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: China — Foreign relations. Classification: LCC DS740.4.S737 2023 (print) | LCC DS740.4 (ebook) | DDC 327.51 — dc23/eng/20220705 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025945 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025946 ISBN: 978-1-032-03553-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-29326-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-30107-3 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003301073 Typeset in Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC For Meisun and Xiaohai Contents List of Illustrations ix Introduction 1 1 Centrality of China and Foreign Contacts 11 2 Barbarians at the Gate 34 3 Opening Pandora’s Box 74 4 Japan’s China Wars 104 5 The Turn of the Century 122 6 The War of Resistance Against Japan 153 7 A New Power Under Test 195 8 Security Priorities 240 9 Boundary Settlements 284 10 Ups and Downs with the Superpowers 312 11 Refocusing on Asia 352 12 Africa and the Middle East 403 13 Trade Negotiations 465 14 Regional Diplomacy 503 viii Contents 15 Statecraft and Crisis Management 538 Conclusion: China’s Place in the World 594 Bibliography 605 Index 614 Illustrations 1.1 The Cage, with Mrs Noble. A British transport rig, the Kite, was wrecked somewhere near Zhoushan during the truce in September 1840, whereupon all its seamen and marines were seized by the local authorities and transferred to Ningbo in small cages, including the wife of Captain Noble, who accompanied her husband 182 1.2 An illustration of the 1860 Battle of Taku Forts, also called Battle of the Peiho Forts, during the Second Opium War, etching by James Grant 182 1.3 Ambassador Extraordinary Li Hongzhang of China (seated on the right) with Emperor Nicholas II of Russia (seated on the left) at the latter’s coronation at the Kremlin on 26 May 1896. Li’s son (adopted) Li Jingfang, standing between Li and Nicholas II, acted as interpreter. Author: Scherer, Nabholz & Co. (1863–1918) 183 1.4 Members of the commission of the League of Nations created by the plenary session of the Preliminary Peace Conference, Paris, 1919. First row standing (left to right): Constantine Diamandy (Rumania), Col. Edward M. House (United States), Roman Dmowski (Poland), Milenko R. Vesnitch (Serbia), Jan Smuts (British Empire), Woodrow Wilson (United States), Paul Hymans (Belgium), V. K. Wellington Koo (China), and Jaime Batalha-Reis (Portugal). Second row standing: Karal Kramar (Czechoslovakia, fourth from left), and Vittorio Scialoja (Italy, sixth from left); seated (left to right): Chinda Sutemi (Japan), Makino Nobuaki (Japan), Leon Bourgeois (France), Lord Robert Cecil (British Empire), Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (Italy), Epitacio Pessoa (Brazil), and Eleftherios Venizelos (Greece). By an unknown photographer, 1919 184 1.5 The ceremony for Japan’s unconditional surrender in the China theatre was held in the auditorium of the Central Military Academy in Nanjing on 9 September 1945 at 8:51 a.m. Gen. Ho Ying-chin, commander-in-chief of the Chinese Army (central figure on the Chinese side), and Gen. Okamura Yasutsugu (冈村宁次), commander of Japanese Expeditionary Forces in Central China, signed the Act of Surrender. General Okamura (figure in Japanese uniform on foot behind the seated figures on the Japanese side opposite), after the signing of the surrender document, is seen