China's Exports, Growth, and Comparative Advantage

117 Pages·2015·1.24 MB·English

Essays in International Economics:
China’s Exports, Growth, and
Comparative Advantage
Dissertation
Zur Erlangung der Wu¨rde des Doktors der
Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften
des Fachbereichs Volkswirtschaftslehre
der Universita¨t Hamburg
Vorgelegt von
Karsten Mau
aus Tu¨bingen
Hamburg, April 2015
Vorschlag fu¨r die Zusammensetzung
der Promotionskomission
Vorsitzender: Prof. Dr. Michael Funke
Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Erich Gundlach
Zweitgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Emma Aisbett
Datum der Disputation: 05. Oktober 2015

Contents i
Contents
List of Figures iv
List of Tables v
Executive Summary vii
Zusammenfassung x
1 Introduction 1
2 Export Diversification and Stages of Economic Development 8
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Literature Review and Conceptual Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Diversification and Classical Trade Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Intensive vs. Extensive Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 Extensions and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Diversification and Modern Trade Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.1 Summary of the EK Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.2 Empirical Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Empirical Analysis and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.1 Descriptive Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.2 Econometric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 US Policy Spillover(?): China’s Accession to the WTO and Rising
Exports to the EU 38
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Contents ii
3.2 US and EU Trade Policies towards China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.1 China-US Trade Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.2 China-EU Trade Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Policy Spillover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.1 Baseline Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.2 Separable Fixed Costs and Multilateral Trade . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Empirical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.1 Empirical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.2 Data and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.1 Main Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.2 Further Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4 Foreign Competition and Quality Sorting?: Overlaps in US and Chi-
nese Exports 67
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.1 Classical Theory, Unit Values, and Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.2 Micro Foundations and Unit Value Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3 Empirical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.1 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.2 Estimating a Pooled Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.3 Estimating Single Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.1 General Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.2 Pooled Sample Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.3 Product-by-Product Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4.4 Competition in the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Bibliography 90
Backmatter 98
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Contents iii
Notes on Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Eidesstattliche Versicherung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
List of Figures iv
List of Figures
2.1 Product Concentration in Exports and GDP per Capita; Country Aver-
ages, 1988-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Diversification and Per Capita Output in the Lerner Diagram . . . . . 15
2.3 The Lerner Diagram with Harrod-neutral Technology . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Number of Exported HS6 Products and GDP per Capita; Average 1998-
2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5 Predicted Number of Exported Goods and GDP per Capita; Equalized
Population and Geography; Average 1998-2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Real Commodity Exports from China to EU-15 Countries; Log-scale;
1962-2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2 AverageUS MFN and Column-2 Tariffs 1989-2001, and the Tariff Threat
towards China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Average European Union Applied Tariffs (%); Ad-valorem Equivalents,
1995-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4 Partial and Total Export Profits of Two Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5 Multilateral Productivity Thresholds with Bilateral Tariff Uncertainty
and Asymmetric Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6 Evolution of the US Policy Effect on Chinese Exports to the EU; 2002-2012 64
4.1 SectoralStructureofUSandChineseManufacturingExportstotheRest
of the World; 1992-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2 Sectoral Transition in a Lerner Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3 Characteristics of US Product-Destination Markets; 1994-2006 . . . . . 78
4.4 Absolute δˆz and Relative Importance of z in US Exports; Average 1994-
2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
List of Tables v
List of Tables
2.1 Contributions to the Diversification Literature since 2003; Data, Mea-
sures, and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Average Number of Exported Products and Country Characteristics;
BE-Estimator, Alternative Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Average Number of Exported Products and Country Characteristics;
BE-Estimator, Alternative Count Thresholds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 NumberofExportedProductsWithinCountriesoverTime; FE-Estimator,
Alternative Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Number of Exported Goods and Country Characteristics; System-GMM
Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6 Number of Exported Goods in Transition Economies; System-GMM Es-
timation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1 Alternative Productivity Thresholds with Bilateral Tariff Uncertainty
and Symmetric Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2 Chinese Exports to the EU-15 after the Removal of US Tariff Uncer-
tainty; Linear Panel Regression, 1995-2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3 Chinese Market Entry in the EU-15 after the Removal of US Tariff Un-
certainty; Alternative Estimators, 1995-2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Chinese Exports to the EU-15 and the Role of Trade with the US; Al-
ternative Estimators, 1995-2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5 Chinese Exports to the EU-15 after the Removal of US Tariff Uncer-
tainty; Static and Dynamic Effects, 1995-2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.1 Chinese Presence and US Export Unit Values by Industry, 1994-2006 . 79
4.2 US Export Unit Values and Chinese Market Presence; Pooled Sample . 80
List of Tables vi
4.3 US Export Unit Values and Chinese Market Presence; Control Variables 81
4.4 US Export Unit Values and Chinese Market Presence; Single Equations 83
4.5 Prevalence of Quality Competition Across Market Characteristics . . . 86
4.6 Chinese Competition in the EU; Pooled Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Executive Summary vii
Executive Summary
At the end of the 20th century, economic investigations in international trade have
seen a return of presumed-dead, yet classical, theories. “Growth miracles”, which
could be observed among several Asian economies, were the consequence of political
reforms that facilitated the international division of labor. As low-wage countries were
increasingly integrated into global production chains, comparative advantage in labor-
intensive activities triggered the countries’ transformation from agricultural to indus-
trial production. The consequences are felt in many industries in advanced economies,
pushing politicians, firms, and workers to adjust. While certain groups in industrialized
countries face real losses, at least in the short- and medium-run, the events enabled a
substantial part of our world’s population to find a way out of poverty. The division of
labor is one of the oldest and most widely diffused principles of economics, and promises
wealth for anyone taking part in it. While the 1970s and 80s were dominated by alter-
native theories to rationalize trade, and its benefits, a revival of the classical forces is
not exclusive only to popular public opinions.
This dissertation analyzes different aspects of the increased participation of low-
wage countries in international trade. In synthesis, it points out why it is so difficult
for some people to make a general statement about the desirability of international
economic integration and trade liberalization. Trade is important for a country to es-
cape poverty, whereas it implies that other countries will face painful adjustments. The
thesis illustrates how technology, as an abstract driver of economic growth, contributes
to a country’s ability to participate in international trade, and that this feeds back
into a sustainable development path. The thesis also argues that the general export
performance of a country may be inhibited, if it faces uncertainty in a major desti-
nation market. Finally, the thesis demonstrates that low-wage countries may contest
the position of high-income countries, in third markets, which has implications for the
evaluation of the competitive “threat” exerted by low-wage countries.