Child welfare fathers as resources and risks in their children's lives

260 Pages·2015·1.84 MB·English

Child Welfare Fathers as Resources and Risks
in their Children's Lives

Lee Zanoni

Bachelor of Psychology (Hons), Macquarie University
Bachelor of Arts, University of NSW

Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Psychology
Macquarie University
March 2015
iv

Table of Contents
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... xi
Summary ........................................................................................................................... xii
Certification by Candidate ................................................................................................ xiv
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... xv
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... xvi
Chapter 1: General Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
Thesis Overview ............................................................................................................ 2
The Present Research ..................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2: Fathers as ‘Core Business’ in Child Welfare Practice and Research:
An Interdisciplinary Review * ............................................................................ 12
Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 13
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 14
Evidence that Fathers have been Overlooked in Child Welfare Practice .................... 18
From Studies of Practitioners ................................................................................ 18
From Studies of Fathers ......................................................................................... 20
Research has also Overlooked Fathers in Child Welfare Families .............................. 21
Reasons Why Fathers have been Overlooked in Practice and Research ..................... 25
Traditional Attachment Theory ............................................................................. 25
Practical Difficulties Working with Fathers .......................................................... 25
Why it is Necessary to Include Fathers in Practice and Research ............................... 30
Revised Attachment Theory .................................................................................. 30
Ecological Theory of Child Maltreatment ............................................................. 36
Fathers as Perpetrators and Risk Factors for Child Maltreatment ......................... 37
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Fathers as Assets and Protective Factors ............................................................... 43
Implications ................................................................................................................. 47
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................ 47
Implications for Research ...................................................................................... 54
Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 56
Chapter 3: Research Design and Method ...................................................................... 58
Background .................................................................................................................. 59
The Newpin Fathers’ Program ............................................................................... 59
The Exploring Processes of Change (EPOC) Project ............................................ 60
Theoretical Basis of the Study ..................................................................................... 60
Research Objectives ..................................................................................................... 62
Research Design .......................................................................................................... 64
Rationale for a mixed method design .................................................................... 64
Rationale for a longitudinal design ........................................................................ 64
Research Participants ................................................................................................... 65
Research Procedure ...................................................................................................... 66
Stages of Research ................................................................................................. 66
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 67
Quantitative Data ................................................................................................... 67
Qualitative Data ..................................................................................................... 68
Ethical considerations ................................................................................................. 68
Chapter Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 69
Chapter 4: Are all Fathers in Child Protection Families Uncommitted,
Uninvolved and Unable to Change? * ................................................................ 71
Chapter Preamble ......................................................................................................... 72
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Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 73
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 74
Characteristics and Risk Factors of Parents in Child Protection Families ............ 74
Stereotypes of Fathers in Child Welfare Families ................................................. 76
Existing Research that Challenges These Stereotypes .......................................... 77
Reconciling the Contradictory Findings in Past Research .................................... 78
Aim of the Study and Research Questions ............................................................ 79
Method ......................................................................................................................... 81
Participants and Procedure .................................................................................... 81
Quantitative Measures ........................................................................................... 82
Results…...................................................................................................................... 85
Analytic Strategy ................................................................................................... 85
Quantitative Results ............................................................................................... 85
Qualitative Results ................................................................................................. 96
Discussion .................................................................................................................. 100
How Typical of Child Protection Parents Were Study Participants? .................. 100
Which Demographic and Family Factors Were Associated with the Fathers’
Psychological Well-being? ...................................................................... 101
Was Evidence Found Supporting the Negative Stereotypes of Fathers in Child
Protection Families? ................................................................................ 103
A Subgroup of Fathers within Child Protection Families ................................... 105
Implications for Policy and Practice .................................................................... 106
Limitations and Strengths .................................................................................... 109
Future Research ................................................................................................... 110
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 111
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Chapter 5: Child Protection Fathers’ Experiences of Childhood, Intimate
Partner Violence and Parenting * .................................................................... 112
Chapter Preamble ....................................................................................................... 113
Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 114
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 115
Fathers’ Life Stories and Childhoods .................................................................. 116
Fathers as Victims of Intimate Partner Violence ................................................. 117
Co-occurrence of Intimate Partner Violence and Child Maltreatment ................ 120
The Protective Benefits of Fathers ....................................................................... 122
Intergenerational Transmission of Protective Benefits ........................................ 122
Aim of this Study ................................................................................................. 123
Method ....................................................................................................................... 124
Participants and Procedure ................................................................................... 124
Measures .............................................................................................................. 125
Results….. .................................................................................................................. 127
Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 127
Quantitative Results ............................................................................................. 128
Qualitative Results ............................................................................................... 131
Discussion .................................................................................................................. 141
Fathers’ Childhoods ............................................................................................. 141
Intimate Partner Violence .................................................................................... 143
Fathers’ Parenting Concerns ................................................................................ 147
Implications ......................................................................................................... 149
Limitations and Further Research ........................................................................ 150
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 151
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Chapter 6: Which Father Factors are Most Strongly Associated with Risk of
Child Maltreatment? An Australian Case Study ........................................... 153
Chapter Preamble ....................................................................................................... 154
Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 155
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 156
Method ....................................................................................................................... 162
Participants and Procedure .................................................................................. 162
Measures of Child Maltreatment Risk (Dependent Variables) ............................ 164
Parental Risk Factors (Independent Variables) ................................................... 165
Results….................................................................................................................... 169
Data Analytic Strategy ......................................................................................... 169
Cross-sectional Results at Time 1 ........................................................................ 170
Longitudinal Results at Time 2 ............................................................................ 177
Discussion .................................................................................................................. 180
Two Constructs within Child Maltreatment Risk Measures ................................ 180
Associations between Psychological Risk Factors and Measures of Child
Maltreatment Risk ................................................................................... 182
Associations between Non-Psychological Risk Factors and Measures of Risk .. 183
Adding the Concepts of Time and Internality ..................................................... 185
Practical Implications .......................................................................................... 188
Limitations and Future Research ......................................................................... 190
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 191
Chapter 7: General Discussion ..................................................................................... 192
Overview of Findings ................................................................................................ 193
Theoretical Implications ............................................................................................ 201
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Practical Implications ................................................................................................ 202
Strengths of the Research .......................................................................................... 204
Limitations of the Research ....................................................................................... 205
Future Research ......................................................................................................... 207
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 208
References ....................................................................................................................... 209
Appendices ...................................................................................................................... 229
Appendix A: Study Participant Information Statement ................................................... 230
Appendix B: Study Participant Consent Form ................................................................ 232
Appendix C: Study Participant Questionnaire ................................................................ 233
Appendix D: Study Participant Father-Specific Questions ............................................ 239
Appendix E: Life Story Interview Information Statement ............................................. 240
Appendix F: Life Story Interview Consent Form ........................................................... 242
Appendix G: Ethics Approvals ........................................................................................ 243

* indicates published paper
x

List of Tables

Table 1. Demographic Profile ................................................................................................... 87
Table 2. Family Profile ............................................................................................................. 89
Table 3. Psychological and Physical Health Profile ................................................................. 91
Table 4. Pearson’s Correlations Between Demographic and Psychological Variables ............ 93
Table 5. Group Differences Between Family Situation for Psychological Variables .............. 95
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics of Participants’ Childhood, IPV and Child’s Out-of-home Care
........................................................................................................................................ 129
Table 7. Pearson’s Correlations between Childhood, IPV and Child Out-of-Home Care Status
........................................................................................................................................ 130
Table 8. Measures of Child Maltreatment Risk Descriptive Statistics at Time 1 ................... 171
Table 9. Pearson’s Correlations between Measures of Child Maltreatment Risk .................. 172
Table 10. Correlations between Time 1 Risk Factors and Measures of Child Maltreatment
Risk ................................................................................................................................. 174
Table 11. Final Model Regression Results for Parental Risk Factors Predicting Child
Maltreatment Risk Measures at Time 1 .......................................................................... 176
Table 12. Correlations between Change in Measures of Child Maltreatment Risk and Parental
Risk Factors at Time 2 .................................................................................................... 179
xi

List of Figures

Figure 1. Structure of this interdisciplinary review………………………………………..17
Figure 2. The relationship between research, theory, improved father engagement and child
outcomes ……………………………………………………………………………..24
Figure 3. Time and internality dimensions of parental risk factors………………………188
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Summary
Fathers and father figures tend to be overlooked in child welfare practice. There are
multiple reasons for this, including common assumptions amongst practitioners that fathers
are irrelevant in their children’s lives, or that all fathers in child welfare families are
substance-abusing and violent. However, overlooking fathers can have serious consequences
for vulnerable children. Not engaging abusive fathers can place children at increased risk of
harm. In addition, excluding non-abusive and committed fathers can be deleterious for
children as it can deprive them of the many benefits of having a loving parent involved in
their life. Despite the significant ramifications to children of poor father engagement, there is
a dearth of research on child welfare fathers to guide father-inclusive practice. There is a
particular paucity of research exploring fathers as resources and assets for their children. The
aim of the present research was to fill the gap in understanding about fathers as both resources
for and risks to their children by examining the profiles and life stories of a group of 35
fathers associated with a fathers’ parenting intervention program in Australia. All but one
participant completed demographic, family, psychological and child maltreatment risk
measures. In addition, some participants provided qualitative data regarding their childhoods,
experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) and efforts to protect their children. The
present research found that, contrary to negative stereotypes, some child welfare fathers have
ceased abusing substances, are very committed to and involved in the lives of their children,
and do their best to protect their children. It also found that some fathers have similar
histories of childhood abuse and IPV victimization as some mothers in child welfare families.
With regard to fathers as risks to their children, the present research found that the parental
risk factors most strongly and consistently associated with fathers’ risk of child maltreatment
were current psychological factors. More positive self-perceptions and lower levels of
depression and anxiety were associated with decreased risk of child maltreatment. The key