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Chemistry Third edition Rob Lewis and Wynne Evans 0230_000118_01_prei.qxd 3/2/06 1:41 pm Page i Chemistry www.palgrave.com/foundations/lewis 0230_000118_01_prei.qxd 3/2/06 1:41pm Pageii Palgrave Foundations A series of introductory texts across a wide range of subject areas to meet the needs of today’s lecturers and students Foundationstexts provide complete yet concise coverage of core topics and skills based on detailed research of course requirements suitable for both independent study and class use – the firm foundations for future study. Published A History of English Literature Biology British Politics Chemistry (third edition) Communication Studies Contemporary Europe (second edition) Economics Economics for Business Foundations of Marketing Modern British History Nineteenth-Century Britain Philosophy Physics (second edition) Politics (second edition) Further titles are in preparation 0230_000118_01_prei.qxd 3/2/06 1:41pm Pageiii Chemistry Third edition ROB LEWIS WYNNE EVANS AND 0230_000118_01_prei.qxd 3/2/06 1:41 pm Page iv © Rob Lewis and Wynne Evans 1997, 2001, 2006 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First edition 1997 Reprinted twice Second edition 2001 Third edition 2006 Published by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN-13: 978–0–230–00011–7 ISBN-10: 0–230–00011–8 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 Printed and bound in China 0230_000118_02_prev.qxd 3/2/06 1:42 pm Page i This edition is dedicated to two inspiring and talented teachers – Gordon Hopkins and John Lewis This page intentionally left blank 0230_000118_03_previi.qxd 3/2/06 1:43pm Pagevii Contents Periodic Table inside front cover 4.2 Ionic bonding 47 Preface xi 4.3 Covalent bonding 52 To the Student: How to Use this Book xii 4.4 Coordinate bonding 56 Acknowledgements xiii 4.5 Ionic and covalent compounds – two extremes 57 1 Numbers, Units and 4.6 Resonance structures 60 Measurement Revision questions 62 1.1 Very small and very big numbers 1 5 More about Bonding 1.2 Logarithms 2 5.1 Exceptions to the octet rule 63 1.3 Units 3 5.2 Shapes of molecules 65 1.4 Errors in experiments 6 5.3 Shapes of molecules with multiple 1.5 Reporting measurements 10 bonds 69 Revision questions 14 5.4 Molecules with and without dipoles 71 2 Elements, Compounds and 5.5 Metallic bonding 72 Reactions 5.6 Giant molecules 73 2.1 Matter and energy 15 5.7 Forces between covalent molecules 75 2.2 Physical and chemical changes 19 Revision questions 81 2.3 Chemical formulae 20 6 Reactions of Ions in Solution 2.4 Writing and balancing equations 24 6.1 Dissolution of salts in water 82 Revision questions 28 6.2 Ionic equations 83 3 Inside the Atom 6.3 Producing ions in water by chemical 3.1 Atomic structure 29 reaction 86 3.2 Isotopes 32 6.4 Acids and bases 90 3.3 Mass spectrometer 35 6.5 Reactions of acids 91 3.4 Electronic structure of atoms 38 6.6 Acids produced when gases CO2, SO and NO dissolve in water 95 3.5 Evidence for the existence of energy 2 2 levels in atoms 40 6.7 Reactions of the hydroxide ion 95 3.6 More advanced ideas about 6.8 Use of reactions in the identification electronic structure 41 of ions in solution 97 Revision questions 45 Revision questions 98 4 Bonding Between Atoms 7 Oxidation and Reduction 4.1 Why atoms combine 46 7.1 Redox reactions 100 0230_000118_03_previi.qxd 3/2/06 1:43pm Pageviii viii CONTENTS 17.2 Oxidation numbers 102 10.8 Critical temperature and pressure 168 17.3 Oxidizing and reducing agents 104 Revision questions 169 17.4 Writing and balancing redox equations 104 11 Solutions and Solubility 17.5 Redox couples 107 11.1 Solubility 170 17.6 Activity series of metals 113 11.2 Dynamic nature of dissolution 176 17.7 Corrosion of iron 114 11.3 Solubility of sparingly soluble 17.8 Redox reactions in nature 115 ionic compounds 176 11.4 Distribution of a solute between 1 Revision questions 117 two solvents 182 8 The Mole 11.5 Solubility of gases in water 183 18.1 Molecular mass 118 11.6 Osmosis 187 18.2 Moles 119 11.7 Colloids 190 Revision questions 192 18.3 Percentage composition by mass 124 18.4 Water of crystallization 127 12 Chemical Families 18.5 Calculating amounts from 12.1 Periodic Table 193 equations 127 12.2 Group 1 elements – the alkali 18.6 Calculating gas volumes 129 metals 194 18.7 Percentage yield 130 12.3 Group 2 elements – the alkaline 18.8 Limiting reagents 131 earth metals 197 1 Revision questions 133 12.4 Group 14 elements 199 12.5 Group 17 elements – the halogens 203 9 Calculating Concentrations 12.6 Group 18 elements – the noble 19.1 Concentration of solutions 135 gases 204 19.2 Standard solutions 138 12.7 Elements of the first transition 19.3 Volumetric analysis 140 series 205 19.4 Other units of concentration 146 12.8 Variation of properties of elements within groups and periods 210 19.5 pH scale 150 Revision questions 214 1 Revision questions 152 13 Energy Changes in Chemical 10 Gases, Liquids and Solids Reactions 10.1 Heat and temperature 153 13.1 Conservation of energy 215 10.2 Changes in the state of matter 153 13.2 Key points about enthalpy changes 218 10.3 Gas laws 157 13.3 Determination of (cid:2)Hin the 10.4 Kinetic molecular theory of gases 161 laboratory 222 10.5 Ideal gas equation 162 13.4 Special kinds of standard enthalpy 10.6 Adsorption of gases on solids 164 change 225 10.7 Vapour pressure 165 13.5 Standard enthalpy of formation 226 0230_000118_03_previi.qxd 3/2/06 1:43pm Pageix CONTENTS ix 13.6 Standard enthalpy of combustion 230 16.6 Variation of pH during an 13.7 Nutrition 231 acid–base titration 303 16.7 Buffering action of carbon dioxide 13.8 Lattice enthalpy 233 in water 305 13.9 Energetics of bond breaking and bond making 236 Revision questions 306 Revision questions 239 17 Organic Chemistry: Hydrocarbons 14 Speed of Chemical Reactions 17.1 Alkanes 307 14.1 Reaction rate 241 17.2 Alkenes 315 14.2 Factors affecting reaction rate 245 17.3 Alkynes 321 14.3 Reaction rate expressions 250 17.4 Aromatic hydrocarbons 322 14.4 Examples of rate expressions found by experiment 252 Revision questions 328 14.5 Calculations using rate expressions 253 18 Common Classes of Organic 14.6 More about first-order reactions 257 Compounds 14.7 Reaction mechanisms 260 18.1 Halogenoalkanes 330 14.8 Catalysis 262 18.2 Alcohols 330 Revision questions 263 18.3 Carbonyl compounds 334 15 Dynamic Chemical Equilibria 18.4 Carboxylic acids 338 15.1 Introduction 265 18.5 Amines 341 15.2 Equilibrium law and equilibrium 18.6 Optical isomerism 342 constant 267 18.7 Amino acids and proteins 343 15.3 Meaning of equilibrium constants 269 18.8 Substituted benzene derivatives 345 15.4 Effects of changing concentration, Revision questions 348 pressure and temperature upon equilibria 272 19 Separating Mixtures 15.5 Production of ammonia by the 19.1 Separating a solid from a liquid 350 Haber–Bosch process 281 19.2 Separating two liquids 353 15.6 Heterogeneous equilibria 282 19.3 Separating solids 355 Revision questions 283 19.4 Steam distillation 356 16 Acid–Base Equilibria 19.5 Ion exchange 356 16.1 Ionic equilibria in water 285 19.6 Solvent extraction 357 16.2 Acids and bases in aqueous 19.7 Chromatography 360 solution 289 Revision questions 364 16.3 Hydrolysis of salts 295 20 Light and Spectroscopy 16.4 Buffer solutions 297 16.5 Acid–base indicators 301 20.1 Electromagnetic spectrum 366