Chemistry: Matter and Change (Student Edition)

1078 Pages·2008·164.66 MB·english

by  Thandi Buthelezi

i s e
nteractive tudent dition
AUTHORS
Thandi Buthelezi • Laurel Dingrando • Nicholas Hainen
Cheryl Wistrom • Dinah Zike
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Student Guide
Reading for Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii
Scavenger Hunt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxi
Chapters
1 Introduction to Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Analyzing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Matter—Properties and Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4 The Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5 Electrons in Atoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6 The Periodic Table and Periodic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7 Ionic Compounds and Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8 Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
9 Chemical Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10 The Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
11 Stoichiometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
12 States of Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
13 Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
14 Mixtures and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
15 Energy and Chemical Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
16 Reaction Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
17 Chemical Equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
18 Acids and Bases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
19 Redox Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
20 Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
21 Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
22 Substituted Hydrocarbons and Their Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
23 The Chemistry of Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
24 Nuclear Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
Student Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .900
Elements Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
Math Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
Reference Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
Supplemental Practice Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Glossary/Glosario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
Contents in Brief iii
Thandi Buthelezi is Associate Professor of Chemistry at Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, KY. She earned her BA in Chemistry from Williams
College, Williamstown, MA, and PhD in Experimental Physical Chemistry from
the University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. Dr. Buthelezi has taught Chemistry at the
undergraduate and graduate (master’s) level for seven years. She is the co-founder
and co-director of the Girls in Science Outreach Program at WKU. She is a member
of the American Chemical Society, the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, and Sigma Xi. She has co-authored over two dozen research papers
published in peer-reviewed journals.
Laurel Dingrando is currently serving as the Secondary Science Coordinator
for the Garland Independent School District. Mrs. Dingrando has a BS in Micro-
biology with a minor in Chemistry from Texas Tech University and an MAT in
Science from University of Texas at Dallas. She taught Chemistry for 25 years in the
Garland Independent School District. She is a member of the American Chemical
Society, National Science Teachers Association, Science Teachers Association of
Texas, Texas Science Educators Leadership Association, and T3 (Teachers Teaching
with Technology).
Nicholas Hainen taught chemistry, AP chemistry, and physics in the
Worthington City Schools, Worthington, Ohio, for 31 years. Mr. Hainen holds BS
and MA degrees in Science Education from The Ohio State University, majoring in
chemistry and physics. His honors and awards include: American Chemical Society
Outstanding Educator in Chemical Sciences; The Ohio State University Honor Roll
of Outstanding High School Teachers; Ashland Oil Company Golden Apple Award;
and Who’s Who Among America’s Teachers. Mr. Hainen is a member of the
American Chemical Society and the ACS Division of Chemical Education.
Cheryl Wistrom is an associate professor of chemistry at Saint Joseph’s College
in Rensselaer, Indiana where she has been honored with both the Science Division
and college faculty teaching awards. She has taught chemistry, biology, and science
education courses at the college level since 1990 and is also a licensed pharmacist.
She earned her BS degree in biochemistry at Northern Michigan University, a BS in
pharmacy at Purdue University, and her MS and PhD in biological chemistry at the
University of Michigan. Dr. Wistrom is a member of the Indiana Academy of
Science, the National Science Teachers Association, and the American Society of
Health-System Pharmacists.
Dinah Zike is an international curriculum consultant and inventor who has
developed educational products and three-dimensional, interactive graphic organiz-
ers for over 30 years. As president and founder of Dinah-Might Adventures, L.P.,
Dinah is the author of over 100 award-winning educational publications, including
The Big Book of Science. Ms. Zike has a BS and an MS in educational curriculum
and instruction from Texas A & M University. Dinah Zike’s Foldables are an exclu-
sive feature of McGraw-Hill textbooks.
iv About the Authors
Teacher Advisory Board
The Teacher Advisory Board gave the authors, editorial staff, and design team feedback on
the content and design in the Student Edition. We thank these teachers for their hard work
and creative suggestions.
Ann Cooper Susan Godez Christine Lewis Sandra Petrie-Forgey
Science Teacher Chemistry/Physics Teacher Science Teacher National Board Certified
United Local Schools Grandview Heights High Martins Ferry High School Science Teacher
Hanoverton, OH School Martins Ferry, OH Gallia Academy High School
Columbus, OH Gallipolis, OH
David L. French Jennifer L. Most
Chemistry Teacher Judith Johnston Chemistry Teacher, Jason J. Zaros
Milford High School Science Teacher, Department Science Department Chair Chemistry/Physics Teacher
Milford, OH Chair West Holmes High School Waterford High School
Wilmington High School Millersburg, OH Waterford, OH
Richard Glink Wilmington, OH
Chemistry/Physics Teacher
Indian Lake High School
Lewistown, OH
Reviewers
Each teacher reviewed selected chapters of Chemistry: Matter and Change and provided
feedback and suggestions for improving the effectiveness of the instruction.
Bridget B. Adkins Betsy Hamrick Phil Lampe Leon Olivier
Ravenwood High School Crest High School Upper Arlington High School Union Grove High School
Brentwood, TN Shelby, NC Columbus, OH McDonough, GA.
Deborah Bennett Treva Jeffries Les McSparrin Dan Reid
Canoga Park High School Scott High School Sharpsville Area High School Central High School
Canoga Park, CA Toledo, OH Sharpsville, PA Champaign, IL
James Breaux Dr. Aruna Kailasa Delores Miller Jay Wilder
Stratford High School Benjamin E. Mays High Alden High School Franklin County High School
Goose Creek, SC School Alden, NY Frankfort, KY
Atlanta, GA
Bob Callender
Warren Mott High School
Warren, MI
Teacher Advisory Board and Reviewers v
Content Consultants
Content consultants each reviewed selected chapters of Chemistry: Matter and Change for
content accuracy and clarity.
Alton J. Banks, PhD Michael O. Hurst, Sr., PhD Kristen Kulinowski, PhD Maria Pacheco, PhD
Professor of Chemistry Associate Professor of Faculty Fellow, Department Associate Professor of
North Carolina State Chemistry of Chemistry Chemistry
University Georgia Southern University Rice University Buffalo State College
Raleigh, NC Statesboro, GA Houston, TX Buffalo, NY
Howard Drossman, PhD
Professor of Chemistry and
Environmental Science
Colorado College
Colorado Springs, CO
Safety Consultant
The Safety Consultant reviewed labs and lab materials for
safety and implementation.
Kenneth R. Roy, PhD
Director of Environmental
Health and Safety
Glastonbury Public Schools
Glastonbury, CT
Contributing Writers
Contributing writers helped develop chapter elements, features, labs, and handbooks.
Peter Carpico Stephen Whitt
Louisville, OH Columbus, OH
Jennifer Gonya Jenipher Willoughby
Galena, OH Forest, VA
Cindy Klevickis Margaret K. Zorn
Elkton, VA Yorktown, VA
vi Consultants and Contributing Writers
Your book is divided into
chapters that are organized
Student Guide
around Themes, Big Ideas, and
Main Ideas of chemistry. Reading for Information . . . . . . . . . . xviii
Scavenger Hunt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxi
THEMES
are overarching concepts used
throughout the entire book that help you tie what
you learn together. They help you see the connec-
tions among major ideas and concepts. Chapter 1
Introduction to Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . 2
BIG Idea appear in each chapter and help you
1.1 A Story of Two Substances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
focus on topics within the themes. The Big Ideas
1.2 Chemistry and Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
are broken down even further into Main Ideas.
1.3 Scientific Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
1.4 Scientific Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
MAIN Idea draw you into more specific details
about chemistry. All the Main Ideas of a chapter Chapter 2
add up to the chapter’s Big Idea.
Analyzing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1 Units and Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
2.2 Scientific Notation and Dimensional Analysis . . . . .40
2.3 Uncertainty in Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
2.4 Representing Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
THEMES
Chapter 3
Matter
Matter—Properties and Changes. . . . . 68
Physical and Chemical Changes
3.1 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Bonding
3.2 Changes in Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Energy
3.3 Mixtures of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Equilibrium
3.4 Elements and Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Chapter 4
The Structure of the Atom. . . . . . . . . . 100
4.1 Early Ideas About Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.2 Defining the Atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
BIG Idea 4.3 How Atoms Differ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
One per chapter 4.4 Unstable Nuclei and Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . .122
Chapter 5
Electrons in Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.1 Light and Quantized Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
5.3 Electron Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
MAIN Idea
Chapter 6
One per section
The Periodic Table and Periodic Law. . 172
6.1 Development of the Modern Periodic Table. . . . . .174
6.2 Classification of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
6.3 Periodic Trends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Table of Contents vii
Contents
Chapter 7 Chapter 13
Ionic Compounds and Metals . . . . . . . 204 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
7.1 Ion Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206 13.1 The Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442
7.2 Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . .210 13.2 The Ideal Gas Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
7.3 Names and Formulas for Ionic Compounds. . . . . .218 13.3 Gas Stoichiometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
7.4 Metallic Bonds and the Properties of Metals. . . . .225
Chapter 14
Chapter 8
Mixtures and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Covalent Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
14.1 Types of Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
8.1 The Covalent Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240 14.2 Solution Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
8.2 Naming Molecules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248 14.3 Factors Affecting Solvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
8.3 Molecular Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253 14.4 Colligative Properties of Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . .498
8.4 Molecular Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
8.5 Electronegativity and Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Chapter 15
Energy and Chemical Change . . . . . . . 514
Chapter 9
15.1 Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.2 Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .523
9.1 Reactions and Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282 15.3 Thermochemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
9.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289 15.4 Calculating Enthalpy Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
9.3 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299 15.5 Reaction Spontaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
Chapter 10 Chapter 16
The Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
10.1 Measuring Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320 16.1 A Model for Reaction Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.2 Mass and the Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325 16.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . .568
10.3 Moles of Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333 16.3 Reaction Rate Laws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
10.4 Empirical and Molecular Formulas . . . . . . . . . . .341 16.4 Instantaneous Reaction Rates and
10.5 Formulas of Hydrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351 Reaction Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
Chapter 11 Chapter 17
Stoichiometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Chemical Equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
11.1 Defining Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368 17.1 A State of Dynamic Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594
11.2 Stoichiometric Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373 17.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Equilibrium. . . . . . . .606
11.3 Limiting Reactants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379 17.3 Using Equilibrium Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
11.4 Percent Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
Chapter 18
Chapter 12
Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
States of Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
18.1 Introduction to Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
12.1 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402 18.2 Strengths of Acids and Bases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
12.2 Forces of Attraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411 18.3 Hydrogen Ions and pH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
12.3 Liquids and Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415 18.4 Neutralization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
12.4 Phase Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
Chapter 19
Redox Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
19.1 Oxidation and Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
19.2 Balancing Redox Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
viii Table of Contents
Contents
Chapter 20 Student Resources
Electrochemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
Elements Handbook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
20.1 Voltaic Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .708
20.2 Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718 Math Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
20.3 Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .728 Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Operations with Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .948
Chapter 21 Square and Cube Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 Significant Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
Solving Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .954
21.1 Introduction to Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .744
Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .956
21.2 Alkanes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
21.3 Alkenes and Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Drawing Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
21.4 Hydrocarbon Isomers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .765
Using Line Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .961
21.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
Ratios, Fractions, and Percents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .964
Operations Involving Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
Chapter 22
Logarithms and Antilogarithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .966
Substituted Hydrocarbons and
Reference Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
Their Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
R-1 Color Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .968
22.1 Alkyl Halides and Aryl Halides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .786
R-2 Symbols and Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .968
22.2 Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792
R-3 Solubility Product Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
22.3 Carbonyl Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .796
R-4 Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
22.4 Other Reactions of Organic Compounds. . . . . . .802
R-5 Names and Charges of Polyatomic Ions . . . . . . . .970
22.5 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
R-6 Ionization Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .970
R-7 Properties of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
Chapter 23
R-8 Solubility Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .974
The Chemistry of Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
R-9 Specific Heat Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .975
23.1 Proteins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .826 R-10 Molal Freezing-Point Depression and
23.2 Carbohydrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832 Boiling-Point Elevation Constants. . . . . . . . . . . .975
23.3 Lipids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .835 R-11 Heat of Formation Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .975
23.4 Nucleic Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
23.5 Metabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .844 Supplemental Practice Problems . . . . 976
Solutions to Selected Practice
Chapter 24
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
Glossary/Glosario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
24.1 Nuclear Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .860
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
24.2 Radioactive Decay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
24.3 Nuclear Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875 Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
24.4 Applications and Effects of Nuclear
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
Table of Contents ix