Chemistry - Course Companion

2014·50.45 MB·english

by  Sergey Bylikin

O X F O R D I B D I P L O M A P R O G R A M M E
2014 EDITION
CHEMISTRY
COURSE COMPANION
Sergey Bylikin
Gary Horner
Brian Murphy
David Tarcy
3
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Contents
1 Stoichiometric relationships 12 Atomic structure (AHL) Condensation polymers 528
Introduction to the particulate nature Electrons in atoms 291 Environmental impact—
of matter and chemical change 1 heavy metals 534
The mole concept 12 13 The periodic table—the
Reacting masses and volumes 20 transition metals (AHL) B Biochemistry
Introduction to biochemistry 539
First-row d-block elements 301
2 Atomic structure Proteins and enzymes 547
Coloured complexes 319
The nuclear atom 37 Lipids 565
Electron conguration 50 14 Chemical bonding and Carbohydrates 580
Vitamins 590
structure (AHL)
3 Periodicity Biochemistry and the
Further aspects of covalent environment 597
Periodic table 67
bonding and structure 329 Proteins and enzymes 606
Periodic trends 75
Hybridization 345 Nucleic acids 619
4 Chemical bonding and Biological pigments 629
15 Energetics/thermochemistry
Stereochemistry in biomolecules 641
structure
(AHL)
Ionic bonding and structure 93 Energy cycles 357 C Energy
Covalent bonding 97
Entropy and spontaneity 364 Energy sources 653
Covalent structures 104
Fossil fuels 657
Intermolecular forces 122 16 Chemical kinetics (AHL) Nuclear fusion and ssion 665
Metallic bonding 133
Rate expression and reaction Solar energy 674
mechanism 375 Environmental impact—global
5 Energetics/thermochemistry
Activation energy 384 warming 679
Measuring energy changes 139 Electrochemistry, rechargeable
Hess’s Law 148 17 Equilibrium (AHL) batteries and fuel cells 687
Bond enthalpies 152 The equilibrium law 389 Nuclear fusion and nuclear ssion 702
Photovoltaic and dye-sensitized
6 Chemical kinetics
18 Acids and bases (AHL) solar cells 710
Collision theory and rates
Lewis acids and bases 395
of reaction 161 D Medicinal chemistry
Calculations involving acids
and bases 397 Pharmaceutical products and
7 Equilibrium
pH curves 403 drug action 717
Equilibrium 179 Aspirin and penicillin 725
19 Redox processes (AHL) Opiates 732
8 Acids and bases pH regulation of the stomach 737
Electrochemical cells 413
Theories of acids and bases 191 Anti-viral medications 745
Properties of acids and bases 195 20 Organic chemistry (AHL) Environmental impact of some
The pH scale 197 medications 751
Types of organic reactions 437
Strong and weak acids and bases 200 Taxol—a chiral auxiliary
Synthetic routes 448
Acid deposition 204 case study 758
Stereoisomerism 451
Nuclear medicine 765
9 Redox processes Drug detection and analysis 775
21 Measurement and analysis
Oxidation and reduction 209
(AHL) Internal Assessment
Electrochemical cells 226
Spectroscopic identication of (with thanks to Mark Headlee for his
10 Organic chemistry organic compounds 461 assistance with this chapter) 785
Fundamentals of organic
chemistry 235 A Materials Index 791
Functional group chemistry 248 Materials science introduction 471
Metals and inductively coupled
11 Measurement and data plasma (ICP) spectroscopy 475
Catalysts 484
processing
Liquid crystals 489
Uncertainties and errors in
Polymers 494
measurement and results 261
Nanotechnology 501
Graphical techniques 272
Environmental impact—plastics 509
Spectroscopic identication of
Superconducting metals and X-ray
organic compounds 277
crystallography 516
iii
Course book denition The IB Learner Prole
The IB Diploma Programme course books are The aim of all IB programmes to develop
resource materials designed to support students internationally minded people who work to create
throughout their two-year Diploma Programme a better and more peaceful world. The aim of the
course of study in a particular subject. They will programme is to develop this person through ten
help students gain an understanding of what learner attributes, as described below.
is expected from the study of an IB Diploma
Inquirers: They develop their natural curiosity.
Programme subject while presenting content in a
They acquire the skills necessary to conduct
way that illustrates the purpose and aims of the IB.
inquiry and research and snow independence in
They reect the philosophy and approach of the
learning. They actively enjoy learning and this love
IB and encourage a deep understanding of each
of learning will be sustained throughout their lives.
subject by making connections to wider issues and
providing opportunities for critical thinking. Knowledgeable: They explore concepts, ideas,
and issues that have local and global signicance.
The books mirror the IB philosophy of viewing the
In so doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and
curriculum in terms of a whole-course approach;
develop understanding across a broad and balanced
the use of a wide range of resources, international
range of disciplines.
mindedness, the IB learner prole and the IB
Diploma Programme core requirements, theory Thinkers: They exercise initiative in applying
of knowledge, the extended essay, and creativity, thinking skills critically and creatively to recognize
action, service (CAS). and approach complex problems, and make
reasoned, ethical decisions.
Each book can be used in conjunction with other
materials and indeed, students of the IB are Communicators: They understand and express
required and encouraged to draw conclusions from ideas and information condently and creatively in
a variety of resources. Suggestions for additional more than one language and in a variety of modes
and further reading are given in each book of communication. They work effectively and
and suggestions for how to extend research are willingly in collaboration with others.
provided.
Principled: They act with integrity and honesty,
In addition, the course books provide advice with a strong sense of fairness, justice and respect
and guidance on the specic course assessment for the dignity of the individual, groups and
requirements and on academic honesty protocol. communities. They take responsibility for their
They are distinctive and authoritative without own action and the consequences that accompany
being prescriptive. them.
IB mission statement Open-minded: They understand and appreciate
their own cultures and personal histories, and are
The International Baccalaureate aims to develop open to the perspectives, values and traditions
inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people of other individuals and communities. They are
who help to create a better and more peaceful accustomed to seeking and evaluating a range of
world through intercultural understanding and points of view, and are willing to grow from the
respect. experience.
To this end the organization works with schools, Caring: They show empathy, compassion and
governments and international organizations to respect towards the needs and feelings of others.
develop challenging programmes of international They have a personal commitment to service, and
education and rigorous assessment. to act to make a positive difference to the lives of
others and to the environment.
These programmes encourage students across the
world to become active, compassionate and lifelong Risk-takers: They approach unfamiliar situations
learners who understand that other people, with and uncertainty with courage and forethought,
their differences, can also be right. and have the independence of spirit to explore
new roles, ideas, and strategies. They are brave and
articulate in defending their beliefs.
iv
Balanced: They understand the importance of What constitutes malpractice?
intellectual, physical and emotional balance to Malpractice is behaviour that results in, or may
achieve personal well-being for themselves and result in, you or any student gaining an unfair
others. advantage in one or more assessment component.
Malpractice includes plagiarism and collusion.
Reective: They give thoughtful consideration
to their own learning and experience. They are Plagiarism is dened as the representation of the
able to assess and understand their strengths and ideas or work of another person as your own. The
limitations in order to support their learning and following are some of the ways to avoid plagiarism:
personal development.
words and ideas of another person to support
●
A note on academic honesty one’s arguments must be acknowledged
It is of vital importance to acknowledge and ● passages that are quoted verbatim must
appropriately credit the owners of information be enclosed within quotation marks and
when that information is used in your work. acknowledged
After all, owners of ideas (intellectual property) CD-Roms, email messages, web sites on the
●
have property rights. To have an authentic piece Internet and any other electronic media must
of work, it must be based on your individual be treated in the same way as books and
and original ideas with the work of others fully journals
acknowledged. Therefore, all assignments, written
the sources of all photographs, maps,
or oral, completed for assessment must use your ●
illustrations, computer programs, data, graphs,
own language and expression. Where sources are
audio-visual and similar material must be
used or referred to, whether in the form of direct
acknowledged if they are not your own work
quotation or paraphrase, such sources must be
appropriately acknowledged. works of art, whether music, lm dance,
●
How do I acknowledge the work of others? theatre arts or visual arts and where the
creative use of a part of a work takes place, the
The way that you acknowledge that you have used
original artist must be acknowledged.
the ideas of other people is through the use of
footnotes and bibliographies. Collusion is dened as supporting malpractice by
another student. This includes:
Footnotes (placed at the bottom of a page) or
endnotes (placed at the end of a document) are allowing your work to be copied or submitted
●
to be provided when you quote or paraphrase for assessment by another student
from another document, or closely summarize the
duplicating work for different assessment
information provided in another document. You ●
components and/or diploma requirements.
do not need to provide a footnote for information
that is part of a ‘body of knowledge’. That is, Other forms of malpractice include any action
denitions do not need to be footnoted as they are that gives you an unfair advantage or affects the
part of the assumed knowledge. results of another student. Examples include,
taking unauthorized material into an examination
Bibliographies should include a formal list of the
room, misconduct during an examination and
resources that you used in your work. ‘Formal’
falsifying a CAS record.
means that you should use one of the several
accepted forms of presentation. This usually
involves separating the resources that you use
into different categories (e.g. books, magazines,
newspaper articles, internet-based resources, CDs
and works of art) and providing full information
as to how a reader or viewer of your work can
nd the same information. A bibliography is
compulsory in the Extended Essay.
v
Using your IB Chemistry
Online Resources
What is Kerboodle?
Kerboodle is an online learning platform. If your school has a
subscription to IB Chemistry Kerboodle Online Resources you will be
able to access a huge bank of resources, assessments, and presentations
to guide you through this course.
What is in your Kerboodle Online Resources?
There are three main areas for students on the IB Chemistry Kerboodle:
planning, resources, and assessment.
Resources
There a hundreds of extra resources available on the IB Chemistry
Kerboodle Online. You can use these at home or in the classroom to
develop your skills and knowledge as you progress through the course.
Watch videos and animations of experiments, dif cult concepts, and
science in action.
Hundreds of worksheets – read articles, perform experiments and
simulations, practice your skills, or use your knowledge to answer
questions.
Look at galleries of images from the book and see their details close up.
Find out more by looking at recommended sites on the Internet,
answer questions, or do more research.
Planning
Be prepared for the practical work and your internal assessment with
extra resources on the IB Chemistry Kerboodle online.
Learn about the different skills that you need to perform an investigation.
Plan and prepare experiments of your own.
Learn how to analyse data and draw conclusions successfully
and accurately.
vi
Assessment
Click on the assessment tab to check your knowledge or revise for your
examinations. Here you will  nd lots of interactive quizzes and exam-
style practice questions.
Formative tests: use these to check your comprehension, there’s one
auto-marked quiz for every sub-topic. Evaluate how con dent you
feel about a sub-topic, then complete the test. You will have two
attempts at each question and get feedback after every question. The
marks are automatically reported in the markbook, so you can see
how you progress throughout the year.
Summative tests: use these to practice for your exams or as revision,
there’s one auto-marked quiz for every topic. Work through the test
as if it were an examination – go back and change any questions you
aren’t sure about until you are happy, then submit the test for a  nal
mark. The marks are automatically reported in the markbook, so you
can see where you may need more practice.
Assessment practice: use these to practice answering the longer
written questions you will come across when you are examined.
These worksheets can be printed out and performed as a timed test.
Don't forget!
You can also  nd extra resources on our free website
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/ib-chemistry
Here you can  nd answers to questions in the book.
vii
Introduction
This book is a companion for students of Chemistry in the International
Baccalaureate Diploma Programme.
Chemistry is one of the pivotal science subjects of the IB Diploma
Programme. It is an experimental science that combines academic study
with the acquisition of laboratory and investigational skills. Chemistry
is often called the central science, as chemical principles underpin both
the physical environment in which we live and all biological systems.
Apart from being a subject worthy of study in its own right, chemistry is
also a prerequisite for many other disciplines such as medicine, biological
and environmental sciences, materials and engineering. A study of
chemistry invariably involves fostering of a wide range of additional
generic, transferable skills, such as analytical skills, problem-solving,
data-handling, IT and communication skills, critical-thinking, numeracy
and scientic literacy skills. During the two years of an IB Diploma
Programme Chemistry Course, students are encouraged to develop
knowledge of chemistry and an understanding of the nature of scientic
inquiry. With its focus on understanding the nature of science (NOS),
IB Chemistry learners will develop a level of scientic literacy that will
better prepare them to act on issues of local and global concern, with a
full understanding of the scientic perspective.
The structure of this book closely follows the chemistry programme in
the Subject Guide.
Topics 1 - 11 explain in detail the core material that is common to
both SL and HL courses. Topics 12 - 21 explain the AHL (additional
higher level material). Topics A, B, C and D cover the content of the
options. The optional topics cover four of the major domains in Applied
Chemistry: Materials, Biochemistry, Energy and Medicinal Chemistry.
Each option has a number of common strands – quantitative aspects,
analytical techniques, environmental perspectives and integrated organic
chemistry linkages.
All topics in the book include the following elements:
Understandings
The specics of the content requirements for each sub-topic are covered
in detail. Concepts are presented in ways that promote enduring
understanding.
Applications and skills
These sections help you to develop your understanding by considering
a specic illustrative example, often following a step-by-step working
method approach or by considering a particular chemical experiment,
involving key laboratory techniques.
Nature of science
Here you can explore the methods of science and some of the knowledge
issues, theories, hypotheses and laws that are associated with scientic
endeavour. This is done using carefully selected examples, including
chemical research that led to paradigm shifts in our understanding of the
world. NOS underpins each topic presented and throughout the book
viii
there are a wide range of NOS based questions and exercises to challenge
your chemical understanding and draw on your scientic perspectives.
NOS is an assessable component of the programme and sample NOS
style questions are integrated throughout the book.
Theory of Knowledge
These short sections have headings that are equivocal 'knowledge questions'.
The text that follows often details one possible answer to the knowledge question.
We encourage you to draw on these examples of knowledge issues in your TOK
essays. Of course, much of the material elsewhere in the book, particularly in the
NOS sections, can be used to prompt TOK discussions.
TOK provides a space for you to engage in stimulating wider discussions about
questions such as whether there should be ethical constraints on the pursuit of
scientic knowledge. It also provides an opportunity for you to reect on scientic
methodologies, and how these compare to the methodologies of other areas of
knowledge. TOK is not formally assessed in the IB Chemistry programme, but it
plays a pivotal role in the teaching of IB science.
Activities and quick questions
A variety of short topics or challenging questions are included with a focus
on active learning. We encourage you to research these topics or problems
yourselves using information readily available in textbooks or from the Internet.
The aim is to promote an independent approach to learning.
End -of-topic questions
At the end of each topic you will nd a wide range of questions
(multiple-choice, data-base exercises, extended response, NOS style
problems and hypothesis style questions).
Answers can be found at www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/ib-chemistry
ix
Meet the authors
Sergey Bylikin was awarded a PhD in Chemistry from Moscow State University
in 1998 and, one year later, received the State Prize of the Russian Federation
in Chemistry. Until 2009, he was assistant professor at Russian State Medical
University, after which point he took up a role at the Open University in the
UK. Sergey is an author of several textbooks. He has been associated with the IB
since 2007 and was involved in the latest IB Chemistry curriculum review.
Gary Horner, a graduate of the University of Queensland, has taught Chemistry
since 1986 in Australia, Switzerland and Hong Kong. In his International School
career Gary has held various leadership positions, including that of CAS coordinator
and Head of Science. Since 2000, he has had signicant involvement with the IBO,
attending workshops across Europe and Canada and leading workshops in India,
Hong Kong and Japan. In 2010, he began advising on the IB Chemistry curriculum
review and is a member of the team developing the latest DP science course. Gary
is currently teaching at King George V School in Hong Kong.
Brian Murphy graduated with a PhD in Inorganic Chemistry from University
College Cork. Following postdoctoral and teaching posts in the UK and Ireland,
he moved to the United Arab Emirates to take up a position at UAE University,
where he became Head of the Department of Chemistry and associate professor
of Inorganic Chemistry. After 8 years he moved back to Ireland to take up a post
at Athlone Institute of Technology, where he is currently a senior lecturer. Brian
has been associated with the IB since 1998 and was involved in the design of the
latest IB Chemistry curriculum.
David Tarcy graduated cum laude with a degree in Science Education from
Whitworth College and has done graduate work in sciences and information
technology in the Northwest USA and Queensland, Australia. He has taught
in the USA, Australia, Europe, and Southeast Asia and has been involved in
curriculum writing, moderation, and question setting for various exam boards and
institutions. David is active in many chemistry education discussion boards, is an
IB Diploma Programme Chemistry Workshop Leader and Field Representative and
was involved in the design of the latest IB Chemistry curriculum.
A project of this size would not have been possible without support and encouragement. To the greatest
extent, the authors would like to thank their families for their love and patience. In particular, special
appreciation goes to:
Brian Murphy - to my wife Mary, for all her love, understanding and unremitting support (míle
buíochas!), parents, Teresa and Joe (RIP) who instilled in me an appreciation of internationalisation from
an earlier age, sister, Lorraine and her family; Gary Horner - to my parents Dennis and Myrtle for their
devotion, vision and unwavering support of their children's happiness, my sister Susan for her eternal
friendship, selessness and professional expertise; David Tarcy - to Tina Walton, my brothers Gary and
Brian, for their input and support, as well as the many friends and professional colleagues I have met
through my teaching career for their support, advice, and friendship; Sergey Bylikin - to Natasha for her
patience, support and invaluable comments.
x