Chemistry - CK-12 Foundation

966 Pages·2009·50.66 MB·English

Chemistry
CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission to reduce the cost of textbook
materials for the K-12 market both in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-content, web-
based collaborative model termed the “FlexBook,” CK-12 intends to pioneer the generation
and distribution of high-quality educational content that will serve both as core text as well
as provide an adaptive environment for learning.
Copyright © 2009 CK-12 Foundation, www.ck12.org
Except as otherwise noted, all CK-12 Content (including CK-12 Curriculum Material)
is made available to Users in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution/Non-
Commercial/ShareAlike3.0Unported(CC-by-NC-SA)License(http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/), as amended and updated by Creative Commons from time
to time (the “CC License”), which is incorporated herein by this reference. Specific details
can be found at http://about.ck12.org/terms.
Authors
Sharon Bewick, Jonathan Edge, Therese Forsythe, and
Richard Parsons.
Supported by CK-12 Foundation
iii
iv
Contents
1. The Science of Chemistry............................................................................................................... 1
2. Chemistry-APhysicalScience.................................................................................................... 47
3. Chemistry in the Laboratory......................................................................................................... 65
4. TheAtomicTheory......................................................................................................................... 95
5. TheBohrModelof the Atom....................................................................................................... 129
6. QuantumMechanicsModeloftheAtom.................................................................................... 165
7. Electron Configurations for Atoms............................................................................................ 209
8. ElectronConfigurationsand the PeriodicTable....................................................................... 233
9. Relationships Between the Elements........................................................................................ 265
10. Trends on the Periodic Table...................................................................................................... 305
11. IonsandtheCompoundsTheyForm......................................................................................... 329
12. WritingandNamingIonicFormulas........................................................................................... 345
13. CovalentBonding......................................................................................................................... 359
14. Molecular Architecture................................................................................................................ 375
15. TheMathematicsofCompounds................................................................................................ 403
16. Chemical Reactions..................................................................................................................... 421
17. MathematicsandChemicalEquations....................................................................................... 445
18. The Kinetic-MolecularTheory..................................................................................................... 485
19. The Liquid State........................................................................................................................... 521
20. The Solid State............................................................................................................................. 545
21. TheSolutionProcess................................................................................................................... 567
22. Ions in Solution............................................................................................................................ 611
23. Chemical Kinetics........................................................................................................................ 633
24. ChemicalEquilibrium................................................................................................................... 679
25. Acids.............................................................................................................................................. 727
26. Water, pH and Titration................................................................................................................ 781
27. Thermodynamics.......................................................................................................................... 811
28. Electrochemistry.......................................................................................................................... 845
29. NuclearChemistry........................................................................................................................ 875
30. Organic Chemistry....................................................................................................................... 907
v
vi
1. The Science of Chemistry
The Scientific Method
LessonObjectives
• Describethestepsinvolvedinthescientificmethod.
• Appreciatethevalueofthescientificmethod.
• Recognizethatinsomecasesnotallthestepsinthescientificmethodoccur,ortheydonotoccurinany
specificorder.
• Explainthenecessityforexperimentalcontrols.
• Recognizethecomponentsinanexperimentthatrepresentexperimentalcontrols.
Introduction
"Whathopesandfearsdoesthisscientificmethodimplyformankind?Idonotthinkthatthisistherightway
toputthequestion.Whateverthistoolinthehandofmanwillproducedependsentirelyonthenatureofthe
goalsaliveinthismankind.Oncethegoalsexist,scientificmethodfurnishesmeanstorealizethem.Yetit
cannot furnish the very goals. The scientificmethod itselfwould not have led anywhere,it would not even
havebeenbornwithoutapassionatestrivingforclearunderstanding."-AlbertEinstein
HistoricalComparisons
IntroductiontoScience
What is science? Is it a list of marvelous inventions and how they work? Or is it a list of theories about
matterandenergyandbiologicalsystems?Orisscienceasubjectthatyoulearnbycarryingoutactivities
in a laboratory? Science is all of these, but it is also something even more basic. Science is a method of
thinkingthatallowsustodiscoverhowtheworldaroundusworks.
To begin this study of one form of science, we will review the last 3,000 years in the history of human
transportation,communication,and medicine. The followingsummary lists humankind's accomplishments
intheseareasduringthreeperiodsinthelast3,000years.
Transportationin1000B.C.
In1000B.C.,peoplecouldtransportthemselvesandtheirgoodsbywalking,ridingananimal,orbyriding
in a cart pulled by an animal. Crossing water, people could paddle a boat or have an animal walk beside
theriverandpulltheboat.Thesemethodsoftransportationrequiredmusclepower,eitherhumanmuscles
oranimalmuscles.
1
Figure2:AphotoofawoodenmodelofaGreek
ship that has both sails and oars. (Source:
Figure 1: A horse-drawn Egyptian chariot.
h t t p : / / c o m m o n s . w i k i m e -
ChariotsoriginatedinMesopotamiaaround3000
dia.org/wiki/File:Model_of_a_greek_trireme,Li-
B.C. (Source: http://commons.wikime-
cense:GNUFreeDocumentation)
dia.org/wiki/File:Egyptian_chariot, Created by:
JosephBonomi,License:PublicDomain)
A few societies had designed rowboats or sailboats, which used muscle power or the force of the wind to
movetheboat.Theseearlymeansoftransportationwereverylimitedintermsofspeedandtherefore,also
limitedintermsofdistancestraveled.Thesailandrowboatswereusedonriversandinlandseas,butwere
notocean-goingvessels.
Transportationin1830
Bytheyear1830,peoplewerestillwalkingandridingincartspulledbyanimals.Ironorewasmovedalong
canalsbyanimalspullingbarges.AmericanpioneerscrossedtheUnitedStatesincoveredwagonspulled
byanimals.Largecitieshadstreetcarspulledbyhorses.Oceancrossingwasaccomplishedinsailingships.
Theonlyimprovementintransportationwastheadditionofspringsandpaddedseatstocartsandwagons
tomaketheridelessjolting.Intheperiodfrom1000B.C.to1830,aspanof2,830years(about100gener-
ationsofpeople),therewere nosignificantchanges inthemodeofhumantransportation.
Figure3:Acoveredwagonofthetypeused
by pioneers to cross the US in the mid-
1800s. (Source: http://commons.wikime-
dia.org/wiki/File:Wagon_train, Created by: Figure 4: The first horse-drawn street car
Unknown,License:PublicDomain) in Seattle, Washington in 1884. (Source:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seat-
tle_-_occidental_and_Yesler_-_1884,Photo
by:Unknown,License:PublicDomain)
Transportationin1995
Bytheyear1995,steamengines,gasolineengines,automobiles,propeller-drivenandjetengines,locomo-
tives,nuclear-poweredships,andinter-planetaryrocketshipswereinvented.Inallindustrializedcountries,
almostanyonecouldownanautomobileandtravelgreatdistancesinveryshorttimes.
2
Inthemid-1800s,severalmonthswererequiredtotravelfromMissouritoCaliforniabycoveredwagonand
thetripwasmadeatconsiderablerisktothetraveler'slife.In1995,anaveragefamilycouldtravelthissame
distance easily in two days and in relative safety. An ordinary person in 1995 probably traveled a greater
distanceinoneyearthananordinarypersonin1830didinanentirelifetime.Thesignificantchangesinthe
meansoftransportationinthe165yearsbetween1830and1995(perhaps5generations)werephenomenal.
Figure5:Amodernjetliner.
(Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conair,Createdby:Bryan,License:CC-BY-SA)
Communicationin1000B.C.
Essentially,people'sonlymeansofcommunicating
over large distances (more than 15 miles) in 1000
B.C. was to send hand-carried messages. Some
societies, for short distances, had developed the
useofsmokesignals,lightsignals,ordrumsignals,
butthesemethodswereuselessforlongdistances.
Sincethemeansofcommunicatingrequiredhand-
carriedmessages,thespeedofcommunicationwas
limited by the speed of transportation. Sending
messages over distances of 1,000 miles could re-
quire several weeks and even then delivery was
notguaranteed.
Figure6:Shoppinglistchiseledonarock.
(Source:CK-12,Createdby:RichardParsons,License:
CC-BY-SA)
3
Communicationin1830
By the year 1830, people's means of communication
over large distances was still the hand-carried mes-
sage. While the paper and ink used to write the mes-
sagehadbeenimproved,itstillhadtobehand-carried.
In the United States, communication between New
YorkandSanFranciscorequiredmorethanamonth.
Whenanewpresidentwaselected,Californianswould
not know who it was for a couple of months after the
election.Forashortperiodoftime,thePonyExpress
was set up and could deliver a letter from St. Louis,
Missouri to Sacramento, California in eleven days,
whichwasamazingatthetime.Themeansofcommu-
nication in 1830 was essentially the same as in 1000
B.C.
Figure7:Aponyexpressrider,circa
1861. (Source: http://commons.wiki-
media.org/wiki/File:Pony_express,
Createdby:USNationalArchivesand
RecordsAdministration,License:PD-
US-Gov)
Communicationin1995
By the year 1995, the telegraph, telephone, radio,
television,opticalfibers,andcommunicationsatellites
were invented. People could communicate almost
anywhereintheindustrializedworldinstantaneously.
Now, when a U.S. president is elected, people
around the globe know the name of the new presi-
denttheinstantthelastvoteiscounted.Astronauts
communicate directly between the earth and the
moon.Anordinarypersoninanindustrializedcountry
canspeakwithpeoplearoundtheworldwhilesimul-
taneouslywatchingeventsoccurinrealtimeglobally.
There have been truly extraordinary changes in
people'sabilitytocommunicateinthelast165years.
Figure8:Amoderncellphone.
(Source: http://www.pdphoto.org/, Photo by: PD-
Photo.org,License:PublicDomain)
4