Chemistry, 8th Edition PDF
Preview Chemistry, 8th Edition
1047810_fep_002-003.qxd 10/16/08 6:50 PM Page 2 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Alkali metals Periodic Table of the Elements Noble gases Alkaline 1 earth metals Halogens 18 1A 8A 1 2 H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He 1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Li Be B C N O F Ne 6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Transition metals 22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222) 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 118 Fr Ra Ac† Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuo (223) 226 (227) (261) (262) (263) (264) (265) (268) (271) (272) metals nonmetals 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 *Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 †Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 232.0 (231) 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260) Group numbers 1–18 represent the system recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 1047810_fep_002-003.qxd 10/16/08 6:50 PM Page 3 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Table of Atomic Masses* Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Element Symbol Number Mass Element Symbol Number Mass Element Symbol Number Mass Actinium Ac 89 [227]§ Gold Au 79 197.0 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9 Aluminum Al 13 26.98 Hafnium Hf 72 178.5 Promethium Pm 61 [145] Americium Am 95 [243] Hassium Hs 108 [265] Protactinium Pa 91 [231] Antimony Sb 51 121.8 Helium He 2 4.003 Radium Ra 88 226 Argon Ar 18 39.95 Holmium Ho 67 164.9 Radon Rn 86 [222] Arsenic As 33 74.92 Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Rhenium Re 75 186.2 Astatine At 85 [210] Indium In 49 114.8 Rhodium Rh 45 102.9 Barium Ba 56 137.3 Iodine I 53 126.9 Roentgenium Rg 111 [272] Berkelium Bk 97 [247] Iridium Ir 77 192.2 Rubidium Rb 37 85.47 Beryllium Be 4 9.012 Iron Fe 26 55.85 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1 Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Rutherfordium Rf 104 [261] Bohrium Bh 107 [264] Lanthanum La 57 138.9 Samarium Sm 62 150.4 Boron B 5 10.81 Lawrencium Lr 103 [260] Scandium Sc 21 44.96 Bromine Br 35 79.90 Lead Pb 82 207.2 Seaborgium Sg 106 [263] Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Lithium Li 3 6.9419 Selenium Se 34 78.96 Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Lutetium Lu 71 175.0 Silicon Si 14 28.09 Californium Cf 98 [251] Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Silver Ag 47 107.9 Carbon C 6 12.01 Manganese Mn 25 54.94 Sodium Na 11 22.99 Cerium Ce 58 140.1 Meitnerium Mt 109 [268] Strontium Sr 38 87.62 Cesium Cs 55 132.90 Mendelevium Md 101 [258] Sulfur S 16 32.07 Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 Mercury Hg 80 200.6 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9 Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 Technetium Tc 43 [98] Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Neodymium Nd 60 144.2 Tellurium Te 52 127.6 Copper Cu 29 63.55 Neon Ne 10 20.18 Terbium Tb 65 158.9 Curium Cm 96 [247] Neptunium Np 93 [237] Thallium Tl 81 204.4 Darmstadtium Ds 110 [271] Nickel Ni 28 58.69 Thorium Th 90 232.0 Dubnium Db 105 [262] Niobium Nb 41 92.91 Thulium Tm 69 168.9 Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 Nitrogen N 7 14.01 Tin Sn 50 118.7 Einsteinium Es 99 [252] Nobelium No 102 [259] Titanium Ti 22 47.88 Erbium Er 68 167.3 Osmium Os 76 190.2 Tungsten W 74 183.9 Europium Eu 63 152.0 Oxygen O 8 16.00 Uranium U 92 238.0 Fermium Fm 100 [257] Palladium Pd 46 106.4 Vanadium V 23 50.94 Fluorine F 9 19.00 Phosphorus P 15 30.97 Xenon Xe 54 131.3 Francium Fr 87 [223] Platinum Pt 78 195.1 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0 Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 Plutonium Pu 94 [244] Yttrium Y 39 88.91 Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Polonium Po 84 [209] Zinc Zn 30 65.38 Germanium Ge 32 72.59 Potassium K 19 39.10 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 *The values given here are to four significant figures where possible. §A value given in parentheses denotes the mass of the longest-lived isotope. 1047810_fm_se_i-xxvi.qxd 10/18/08 9:11 AM Page i e i g h t h e d i t i o n Chemistry Steven S. Zumdahl University of Illinois Susan A. Zumdahl University of Illinois Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 1047810_fm_se_i-xxvi.qxd 12/5/08 5:14 PM Page ii Chemistry, Eighth Edition © 2010 Brooks Cole, a part of Cengage Learning Steven S. Zumdahl and Susan A. Zumdahl ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to OWL Producers: Stephen Battisti, Cindy Stein, 1047810_fm_se_i-xxvi.qxd 10/18/08 9:11 AM Page iii C o n t e n t s To the Professor ix 3.4 Molar Mass 84 To the Student xv 3.5 Learning to Solve Problems 87 3.6 Percent Composition of Compounds 88 3.7 Determining the Formula of a Compound 90 1 Chemical Foundations 1 3.8 Chemical Equations 97 1.1 Chemistry: An Overview 3 3.9 Balancing Chemical Equations 99 1.2 The Scientific Method 5 3.10 Stoichiometric Calculations: Amounts of Reactants CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS A Note-able and Products 102 Achievement 7 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS High Mountains—Low CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Critical Units! 8 Octane 103 1.3 Units of Measurement 9 3.11 The Concept of Limiting Reagent 107 1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 11 For Review 115 䊏 Key Terms 115 䊏 Questions and 1.5 Significant Figures and Calculations 14 Exercises 117 1.6 Dimensional Analysis 17 1.7 Temperature 21 4 Types of Chemical Reactions and 1.8 Density 24 Solution Stoichiometry 129 1.9 Classification of Matter 26 4.1 Water, the Common Solvent 130 For Review 29 䊏 Key Terms 29 䊏 Questions and Exercises 31 4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes 132 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Arrhenius: A Man with 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 39 Solutions 135 2.1 The Early History of Chemistry 40 4.3 The Composition of Solutions 136 2.2 Fundamental Chemical Laws 41 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Tiny Laboratories 143 2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 44 4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions 144 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Berzelius, Selenium, and 4.5 Precipitation Reactions 145 Silicon 46 4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution 150 2.4 Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom 47 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 151 2.5 The Modern View of Atomic Structure: 4.8 Acid–Base Reactions 154 An Introduction 50 4.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 161 2.6 Molecules and Ions 52 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Iron Zeroes in on 2.7 An Introduction to the Periodic Table 54 Pollution 162 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Hassium Fits Right in 56 4.10 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 166 2.8 Naming Simple Compounds 57 For Review 169 䊏 Key Terms 169 䊏 Questions and For Review 67 䊏 Key Terms 67 䊏 Questions and Exercises 171 Exercises 69 5 Gases 180 3 Stoichiometry 76 5.1 Pressure 181 3.1 Counting by Weighing 77 5.2 The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro 183 3.2 Atomic Masses 78 5.3 The Ideal Gas Law 189 3.3 The Mole 81 5.4 Gas Stoichiometry 194 iii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. 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May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 1047810_fm_se_i-xxvi.qxd 10/18/08 9:11 AM Page iv 6.6 New Energy Sources 265 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Farming the Wind 267 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Veggie Gasoline? 272 For Review 273 䊏 Key Terms 273 䊏 Questions and Exercises 275 7 Atomic Structure and Periodicity 284 7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 285 7.2 The Nature of Matter 287 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Chemistry That Doesn’t Leave You in the Dark 290 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Thin Is In 292 7.3 The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen 294 7.4 The Bohr Model 295 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Fireworks 298 7.5 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 300 7.6 Quantum Numbers 303 7.7 Orbital Shapes and Energies 305 7.8 Electron Spin and the Pauli Principle 306 7.9 Polyelectronic Atoms 308 5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 199 7.10 The History of the Periodic Table 309 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Separating Gases 201 7.11 The Aufbau Principle and the Periodic Table 312 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS The Chemistry of Air 7.12 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 318 Bags 202 7.13 The Properties of a Group: The Alkali Metals 323 5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 205 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Potassium—Too Much of a 5.7 Effusion and Diffusion 212 Good Thing Can Kill You 326 5.8 Real Gases 214 For Review 327 䊏 Key Terms 327 䊏 Questions and 5.9 Characteristics of Several Real Gases 217 Exercises 329 5.10 Chemistry in the Atmosphere 217 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Acid Rain: An Expensive 8 Bonding: General Concepts 339 Problem 218 8.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 341 For Review 221 䊏 Key Terms 221 䊏 Questions and CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS No Lead Pencils 343 Exercises 223 8.2 Electronegativity 344 8.3 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments 346 6 Thermochemistry 235 8.4 Ions: Electron Configurations and Sizes 350 6.1 The Nature of Energy 236 8.5 Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds 353 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry 243 8.6 Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds 357 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Nature Has Hot 8.7 The Covalent Chemical Bond: A Model 358 Plants 246 8.8 Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Firewalking: Magic or Reactions 361 Science? 250 8.9 The Localized Electron Bonding Model 364 6.3 Hess’s Law 251 8.10 Lewis Structures 365 6.4 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 255 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Nitrogen Under 6.5 Present Sources of Energy 262 Pressure 369 iv Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. 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May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 1047810_fm_se_i-xxvi.qxd 10/21/08 8:58 PM Page v 8.11 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 369 8.12 Resonance 373 8.13 Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model 378 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Chemical Structure and Communication: Semiochemicals 388 For Review 391 䊏 Key Terms 391 䊏 Questions and Exercises 392 9 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals 403 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model 404 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model 416 9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 419 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 425 9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models 426 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS What’s Hot? 427 For Review 429 䊏 Key Terms 429 䊏 Questions and Exercises 430 11.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions 509 10 Liquids and Solids 438 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS The Lake Nyos 10.1 Intermolecular Forces 440 Tragedy 510 10.2 The Liquid State 443 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Spray Power 512 10.3 An Introduction to Structures and Types of 11.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Solids 445 Depression 516 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Smart Fluids 448 11.6 Osmotic Pressure 520 10.4 Structure and Bonding in Metals 451 11.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 524 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Closest Packing of CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS The Drink of Champions— M & Ms 454 Water 526 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS What Sank the 11.8 Colloids 526 Titanic? 457 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Organisms and Ice 10.5 Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids 457 Formation 528 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Transistors and Printed For Review 528 䊏 Key Terms 528 䊏 Questions and Circuits 464 Exercises 530 10.6 Molecular Solids 466 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Explosive Sniffer 467 12 Chemical Kinetics 539 10.7 Ionic Solids 468 12.1 Reaction Rates 540 10.8 Vapor Pressure and Changes of State 471 12.2 Rate Laws: An Introduction 545 10.9 Phase Diagrams 479 12.3 Determining the Form of the Rate Law 547 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Making Diamonds at Low 12.4 The Integrated Rate Law 551 Pressures: Fooling Mother Nature 482 12.5 Reaction Mechanisms 562 For Review 484 䊏 Key Terms 484 䊏 Questions and 12.6 A Model for Chemical Kinetics 565 Exercises 486 12.7 Catalysis 570 11 Properties of Solutions 497 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Automobiles: Air Purifiers? 573 11.1 Solution Composition 498 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Enzymes: Nature’s 11.2 The Energies of Solution Formation 501 Catalysts 574 11.3 Factors Affecting Solubility 504 For Review 577 䊏 Key Terms 577 䊏 Questions and CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Ionic Liquids? 506 Exercises 580 v Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. 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May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 1047810_fm_se_i-xxvi.qxd 10/18/08 9:11 AM Page vi 14.9 The Effect of Structure on Acid–Base Properties 677 14.10 Acid–Base Properties of Oxides 679 14.11 The Lewis Acid–Base Model 679 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Self-Destructing Paper 682 14.12 Strategy for Solving Acid–Base Problems: A Summary 683 For Review 684 䊏 Key Terms 684 䊏 Questions and Exercises 688 15 Acid–Base Equilibria 697 15.1 Solutions of Acids or Bases Containing a Common Ion 698 15.2 Buffered Solutions 701 15.3 Buffering Capacity 710 15.4 Titrations and pH Curves 713 15.5 Acid–Base Indicators 728 For Review 734 䊏 Key Terms 734 䊏 Questions and Exercises 736 16 Solubility and Complex Ion Equilibria 743 16.1 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product 744 13 Chemical Equilibrium 593 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS The Chemistry of 13.1 The Equilibrium Condition 594 Teeth 748 13.2 The Equilibrium Constant 597 16.2 Precipitation and Qualitative Analysis 752 13.3 Equilibrium Expressions Involving Pressures 601 16.3 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 759 13.4 Heterogeneous Equilibria 604 For Review 764 䊏 Key Terms 764 䊏 Questions and 13.5 Applications of the Equilibrium Constant 606 Exercises 766 13.6 Solving Equilibrium Problems 615 13.7 Le Châtelier’s Principle 620 17 Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free For Review 626 䊏 Key Terms 626 䊏 Questions and Energy 772 Exercises 628 17.1 Spontaneous Processes and Entropy 773 17.2 Entropy and the Second Law of 14 Acids and Bases 638 Thermodynamics 779 14.1 The Nature of Acids and Bases 639 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Entropy: An Organizing 14.2 Acid Strength 642 Force? 780 14.3 The pH Scale 647 17.3 The Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity 780 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Arnold Beckman, Man of 17.4 Free Energy 783 Science 648 17.5 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions 786 14.4 Calculating the pH of Strong Acid Solutions 650 17.6 Free Energy and Chemical Reactions 790 14.5 Calculating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions 652 17.7 The Dependence of Free Energy on Pressure 794 14.6 Bases 661 17.8 Free Energy and Equilibrium 798 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Amines 664 17.9 Free Energy and Work 802 14.7 Polyprotic Acids 666 For Review 804 䊏 Key Terms 804 䊏 Questions and 14.8 Acid–Base Properties of Salts 671 Exercises 807 vi Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. 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May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 1047810_fm_se_i-xxvi.qxd 10/18/08 9:11 AM Page vii 18 Electrochemistry 816 18.1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 817 18.2 Galvanic Cells 823 18.3 Standard Reduction Potentials 826 18.4 Cell Potential, Electrical Work, and Free Energy 833 18.5 Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration 836 18.6 Batteries 842 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Fuel Cells: Portable Energy 844 18.7 Corrosion 845 18.8 Electrolysis 847 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS The Chemistry of Sunken Treasure 852 18.9 Commercial Electrolytic Processes 852 For Review 858 䊏 Key Terms 858 䊏 Questions and Exercises 861 19 The Nucleus: A Chemist’s View 872 19.1 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay 873 19.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 878 20.9 The Chemistry of Phosphorus 930 19.3 Nuclear Transformations 881 20.10 The Group 6A Elements 932 19.4 Detection and Uses of Radioactivity 883 20.11 The Chemistry of Oxygen 933 19.5 Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus 887 20.12 The Chemistry of Sulfur 934 19.6 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 890 20.13 The Group 7A Elements 937 19.7 Effects of Radiation 895 20.14 The Group 8A Elements 940 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Future Nuclear Power 893 For Review 942 䊏 Key Terms 942 䊏 Questions and Exercises 945 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Nuclear Physics: An Introduction 896 For Review 899 䊏 Key Terms 899 䊏 Questions and 21 Transition Metals and Exercises 901 Coordination Chemistry 953 20 The Representative 21.1 The Transition Metals: A Survey 954 21.2 The First-Row Transition Metals 959 Elements 907 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Titanium Dioxide—Miracle 20.1 A Survey of the Representative Elements 908 Coating 961 20.2 The Group 1A Elements 912 21.3 Coordination Compounds 964 20.3 The Chemistry of Hydrogen 914 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Alfred Werner: 20.4 The Group 2A Elements 916 Coordination Chemist 968 20.5 The Group 3A Elements 918 21.4 Isomerism 969 20.6 The Group 4A Elements 919 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS The Importance of CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Beethoven: Hair Is the Being cis 972 Story 921 21.5 Bonding in Complex Ions: The Localized Electron 20.7 The Group 5A Elements 922 Model 974 20.8 The Chemistry of Nitrogen 923 21.6 The Crystal Field Model 976 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Nitrous Oxide: Laughing CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Transition Metal Ions Lend Gas That Propels Whipped Cream and Cars 929 Color to Gems 979 vii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. 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