Characterization of Semiconductor Heterostructures and Nanostructures

811 Pages·2013·25.83 MB·English

by  Giovanni Agostini and Carlo Lamberti (Eds.)

Characterization
of Semiconductor
Heterostructures
and Nanostructures
Second Edition
Edited By:
CARLO LAMBERTI AND GIOVANNI AGOSTINI
University of Torino
Department of Chemistry
Via Quarello 11
I-10135 Torino
Italy
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To the older trees, because that’s from them that we came from but most importantly,
to the young trees, because to them belongs the future.
In my na¨ıvemind I liketo thinkof knowledge dissemination as an old tree,with its
roots strongly and deeply set in the ground, and with its seeds gently taken by a lovely
windthatspreadsthemallaround.Letthegroundstickclosetotheoldtree’srootsandlet
thewindcaressitsbranches,aslongaspossible...tillnewyoungtreesgrowupfromthe
ground and become stronger and stronger and can finally replace the old one.
CarloLamberti
PREFACE
The first edition of the book Characterization of Semiconductor Heterostructures and Nano-
structures (C. Lamberti Ed., ISBN: 978-0-444-53099-8) was edited by Elsevier,
Amsterdam(NL)in2008.ThesameeditionwasreprintedfortheChinesemarked2010
(ISBN: 978-7-03-026969-0) by Elsevier in Singapore.
Theimpressiveevolutionofthefieldsrelatedtonanotechnologies,togetherwiththe
relative good editorial success of the first edition of the book, justified the need to
publish a second edition. The first edition was structured on 13 chapters, each one
devotedtoaspecificcharacterizationtechnique.Allthe13chaptersconstitutingthefirst
editionarestillpresentinthesecond,althoughinaslightlydifferentorder.Withtheonly
exception of the chapter reporting the electrical characterization (where L. Rigutti
replaces A. Cavallini) and of the chapter related to surface diffraction (where T. Schu¨lli
replacesT.Metrger)theremaining11chaptersofthefirsteditionareleadedbythesame
correspondingauthors.Allthesechaptershavebeendeeplyrevisitedandupdatedinboth
examplesandquotedbibliography.Tocovertheoverlookedareas,fournewchaptersare
presentinthesecondeditiondealingwithSAXS,totalscattering,X-raymicroandnano
beams, and AFM/STM, chapters 5, 6, 9 and 11, respectively. The book is now able to
betterdescribe the most relevant, powerful and recent characterization techniques used
in the study of nanostructured materials. Dr Giovanni Agostini accepted to shear with
me the duties of editing this second edition.
The book has basically a double aim. The first one lies on the educational ground.
Thebookprovidesthebasicconceptofeachoftheselectedtechniqueswithanapproach
understandable by master’s and PhD students in physics, chemistry, material science,
engineering, nanotechnology. The second aim is to provide a selected set of examples
from the recent literature of the TOP results obtained with the specific technique in
understanding the properties of semiconductor heterostructures and nanostructures.
Each chapter has consequently this double structure: a first part devoted to explain the
basicconcepts,providingthelargerpossibleaudience,andasecondonetothediscussion
of the most peculiar and innovative examples, allowing the book to have the longer
possible lifetime. So students should not get frustrated if theyfound more difficulties in
theunderstanding ofthe secondpartof thechapters. Ouradvice isto focuson the first
parts,theycanalwayscomebacktosecondpartsintheyears,whentheirexperiencewill
be improved. Of course, the book is devoted also to the specialized community of
scientists working in the fields of design, growth, characterization, testing of hetero-
structures-based devices in both academic and industrial laboratories. Such readers
should skip the first parts of the chapters, focusing on the final ones.
ix
x Preface
Ontopofthis,thebookasafurtherandsomewhatevenmoreambitiousgoal.Inthis
regardthetopicofquantumwells,wiresanddotsshouldbeseenasapretextofapplying
top level characterization techniques in understanding the structural, electronic, etc.
propertiesofmatteratthenanometer(evensubnanometer)scale.Inthiswayitisaimed
to become a reference book in the much broader, and extremely hot, field of
nanotechnology.
CarloLamberti,GiovanniAgostini
CONTRIBUTORS
Valery V. Afanas’ev
Semiconductor Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
Giovanni Agostini
Department of Chemistry, NIS Centre of Excellence, and INSTM Reference Center
University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 7, I-10125 Torino, Italy
Alfonso Baldereschi
Department of Physics, University of Trieste, Strada Costiera 11, I-34151 Trieste, Italy;
CNR-IOM DEMOCRITOS National Simulation Center, Trieste; Italy Institute of
TheoreticalPhysics,E´ colePolytechniqueFe´de´raledeLausanne(EPFL),CH-1015Lausanne,
Switzerland
Simon J.L. Billinge
Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA; Department of Applied Physics and Applied
Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
Elisa Borfecchia
Department of Chemistry, NIS Center of Excellence and INSTM Reference Center
University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 7, I-10125 Torino, Italy
F. Boscherini
DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy,UniversityofBologna,VialeC.BertiPichat6/240127
Bologna, Italy
Emil S. Boz(cid:1)in
Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
Elisa Buffagni
IMEM-CNR Institute, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
Gema Martinez-Criado
Experiments Division, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, France
Francesca Detto
IMEM-CNR Institute, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
Filippo Fabbri
IMEM-CNR Institute, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
Claudio Ferrari
IMEM-CNR Institute, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
xi
xii Contributors
E. Gatti
DipartimentodiScienzadeiMaterialiandLeNESS,Universita´degliStudidiMilanoBicocca,
Via Cozzi 53, Ie20125, Milano, Italy
Vincenzo Grillo
Center S3 NANO-CNR, Via Campi, 213/A, 41100 Modena, Italy
M. Gurioli
L.E.N.S. and Dipartimento di Fisica, Universita´ degli Studi di Firenze, Via Sansone 1,
Ie50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
M. Guzzi
DipartimentodiScienzadeiMaterialiandLeNESS,Universita´degliStudidiMilanoBicocca,
Via Cozzi 53, Ie20125, Milano, Italy
Pavol Juha´s
Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
Carlo Lamberti
Department of Chemistry, NIS Centre of Excellence, and INSTM Reference Center
Universityof Turin, Via P. Giuria 7, I-10125 Torino, Italy
Laura Lazzarini
IMEM-CNR Institute, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
Alessandro Longo
InstituteofNanostructuredMaterialsoftheItalianNationalResearchCouncil,ISMN-CNR,
Palermo, Italy
Chiara Manfredotti
Department of Physics and NIS Centre of Excellence, Universita‘ di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1,
10125 Torino, Italy
G. Margaritondo
Faculte´ des Sciences de Base, Ecole Polytechnique Fe´de´rale de Lausanne (EPFL) CH-1015
Lausanne, Switzerland
Lorenzo Mino
Department of Chemistry, NIS Center of Excellence and INSTM Reference Center
Universityof Turin, Via P. Giuria 7, I-10125 Torino, Italy
Lucia Nasi
IMEM-CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
Vincent Favre-Nicolin
CEA, Grenoble, France
Maria Peressi
Department of Physics, University of Trieste, Strada Costiera 11, I-34151 Trieste, Italy;
CNR-IOM DEMOCRITOS National Simulation Center, Trieste, Italy
Contributors xiii
Giuseppe Portale
Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), DUBBLE beamline at the
European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), Grenoble, France
M.G. Proietti
Departamento de F´ısica de la Materia Condensada, Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de
Arago´n, CSIC-Universidad de Zaragoza - c. Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
Gilles Renaud
CEA, Grenoble, France
H. Renevier
Laboratoire des Mate´riaux et du Ge´nie Physique, UMR 5628, Grenoble INP - MINATEC,
3 parvis L. Ne´el - BP257, 38016 Grenoble 1, France
Marie-Ingrid Richard
Universite´ Paul Ce´zanne, Marseille, France
Lorenzo Rigutti
Institut d’Electronique Fondamentale, UMR CNRS 8622, University Paris Sud, Orsay,
France; Groupe de Physique des Mate´riaux, UMR CNRS 6634, INSA and University of
Rouen, 76801 St. Etienne du Rouvray, France
Francesca Rossi
IMEM-CNR Institute, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
Giancarlo Salviati
IMEM-CNR Institute, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
S. Sanguinetti
DipartimentodiScienzadeiMaterialiandLeNESS,Universita´degliStudidiMilanoBicocca,
Via Cozzi 53, Ie20125, Milano, Italy
Tobias Schu¨lli
European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ESRF, Grenoble, France
Takashi Sekiguchi
Nano Device Characterization Group, Advanced Electronic Materials Center, National
Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Andre Stesmans
Semiconductor Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
Maria Tchernycheva
Institut d’Electronique Fondamentale, UMR CNRS 8622, University Paris Sud, Orsay,
France
Daniel Wolverson
Department of Physics, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
11
CHAPTER
Introduction: The Interdisciplinary
Nature of and Nanotechnology
and Its Need to Exploit Frontier
Characterization Techniques
Giovanni Agostini, Carlo Lamberti
DepartmentofChemistry,NISCentreofExcellence,andINSTMReferenceCenterUniversityofTurin,ViaP.Giuria7,
I-10125Torino,Italy.
Contents
1. TheScientificandEditorialBoomingofNanotechnologyintheNewMillennium 1
2. HeterostructuresandNanostructures:DefinitionandApplications,fromOptoelectronictoCatalysis 8
3. DynamicInterplayamongGrowth/SynthesisTechniques,TheoreticalModelingandCharacterization
TechniquesintheDesignandImprovementofSemiconductorHeterostructure-BasedDevices 9
4. PurposesoftheBookandChaptersLayout 11
References 13
1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND EDITORIAL BOOMING OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM
Thetermnanotechnologyreferstoabranchof appliedscienceandoftechnologywhose
unifying theme is the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale, typically
from 1 to 100 nm (1 nm ¼ 10(cid:2)9 m), and the fabrication of devices within that size
range. The appeal in such approach lies in the fact that the structural, physical,
chemical, electronic, optical, etc. properties of nanometer-dimensioned materials
markedly differ from those of the corresponding bulk (unconfined) materials. More
interestingly,suchpropertiescanbetunedactingonthematerialsizeandshape,inthe
1e100 nm range. Nanotechnology, among the most advanced frontiers of Science, is
certain that showing the higher degree of multidisciplinary, generated from the
well-accorded interplay among different fields such as materials science, applied
physics, interface and colloid science, device physics, supramolecular chemistry,
physical chemistry, biochemistry, biophysics, surface science, engineering, etc.
(see Table 1.1). Nanotechnology results from a combined extension of such sciences
into the nanoscale.
CharacterizationofSemiconductorHeterostructuresandNanostructures
SecondEdition(C.LambertiandG.AgostiniEds.) (cid:1)2013ElsevierB.V. 1
ISBN978-0-444-59551-5,http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59551-5.00001-7 Allrightsreserved.
2 GiovanniAgostini,CarloLamberti
Table1.1 Upperpart:listofSubjectCategories,wherethe27journalsthatjoinedin2005theSubject
Categorynamed“Nanoscience&Nanotechnology”,weresortedin2004byISIwebofknowledge.As
somejournalsbelongtomorethanoneSubjectCategories,thesumofthenumbersreportedinthe
secondcolumnislargerthan27.Lowerpart:samedatareportedintheupperparts,wheretheSubject
Categoriesaregroupedintofivemacro-categories
Numberofjournalsbelonging
Subjectcategory tothecategory
Materials Science,Multidisciplinary 12
Physics, Applied 7
Engineering, Electrical &Electronic 7
Chemistry,Multidisciplinary 4
Chemistry,Physical 2
Engineering, Multidisciplinary 2
Physics, Condensed Matter 2
Instruments &Instrumentation 2
BiochemicalResearchMethods 1
Biophysics 1
Biotechnology&Applied Microbiology 1
Chemistry,Analytical 1
Chemistry,Applied 1
Chemistry,Inorganic &Nuclear 1
Electrochemistry 1
Engineering, Biomedical 1
Engineering, Manufacturing 1
Materials Science,Characterization 1
&Testing
Mechanics 1
Metallurgy &MetallurgicalEngineering 1
Optics 1
Physics, Atomic,Molecular &Chemical 1
Physics, Multidisciplinary 1
Thermodynamics 1
NewEntries (nonclassified in2004) 4
Macro-category Totalnumberofjournals %
Physics 15 28
Materials Science 13 24
Chemistry 12 22
Engineering 11 20
Biology 3 6