CHAPTERS IN THE LIFE OF STÓ:LŌ ELDER ARCHIE CHARLES

418 Pages·2015·8.53 MB·English

WALK WITH ME: CHAPTERS IN THE LIFE OF STÓ:LŌ ELDER ARCHIE CHARLES
(1922-2010) AND REFLECTIONS ON COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH

A Thesis Submitted to the College of
Graduate Studies and Research
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
In the Department of History
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon

By

MEAGAN EVELYN GOUGH

 Copyright Meagan Evelyn Gough, November 24, 2015. All rights reserved.
PERMISSION TO USE

In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree
from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it
freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this
thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by
the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the
Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is
understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for
financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due
recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which
may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation.

Requests for permission to copy or to make other uses of materials in this thesis/dissertation in
whole or part should be addressed to:

Head of the Department of History
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A5
Canada

OR

Dean
College of Graduate Studies and Research
University of Saskatchewan
107 Administration Place
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A2
Canada

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ABSTRACT
This dissertation is both an analytical life history of Stó:lō Elder Archie Charles (1922-2010) as
well as an academic reflection on the process of collaborating to record and write this told-to
narrative. Grand Chief Archie Charles left a profound social, political and cultural legacy within
the Stó:lō community. He is broadly acknowledged as one of the community’s most respected
modern leaders. My examination of the way Archie strategically accepted and rejected elements
of the teachings of his ancestors and the lessons learned from newcomers serves to enrich a
growing body of post-colonial scholarship that challenges long-standing assumptions about what
it means to be Aboriginal. The agency revealed through his life experience alerts us to the
dynamic way in which Archie and certain others of his generation balanced innovation with
tradition. This study of Archie’s life therefore, contributes to an emerging scholarship that
challenges still lingering racist myths and faulty dualisms that position Native people as either
“assimilated” or “resisting”. Through Archie’s story, I reveal the way in which he applied
knowledge and skills he gained via the acculturation process (and his lifelong reflections on this
process) to foster particular cultural continuities within areas of Stó:lō life. Archie successfully
did this by enacting his own personal ethos of “protection through inclusion and education”. This
research chronicles and interprets the genesis and evolution of his leadership strategy by tracing it
back to his adaptive interpretations of his ancestral and familial teachings and highlighting key
times in Archie’s life history when he worked to find a balance between innovation and tradition.
Thus it foregrounds his formative experience with Xwelítem (newcomers) and Stó:lō society and
cosmology, particularly his adoption, time spent attending Kamloops Indian Residential School,
and involvement as a soldier and veteran of the Canadian Armed Forces. It highlights how he
derived meaning out of these experiences, which in turn guided his actions in the public sphere
and shaped his policies as a community leader –in particular as elected Chief of his community of
Seabird Island British Columbia and as a Sia:teleq (a hereditary caretaker) of his family fishcamp
in the Fraser Canyon. This research draws upon my own sustained dialogue with Archie Charles
and his immediate family, secondary and primary sources, and previous oral history interviews
conducted with Archie and his family members. It explicates Archie’s role as a man who was
known more for his actions than his words and the ways in which silence may be interpreted and
made meaningful in the told-to genre. In terms that reflect the subtleties of collaborative dynamics
that play out in told-to narratives, it likewise examines his role as narrator and authority of his life
experience and my role as chronicler, then interpreter. As such, it provides glimpses into specific
time periods and aspects of Archie’s life, but does not seek to be fully chronologic and
comprehensive. From this, I seek to contribute to collaborative historiography by sharing the
way in which my collaboration with Archie shifted from a dialogue, particularly following his
death in 2010, to a “polylogue”: an engagement of multiple voices of family and extended
community members to support this telling of his life narrative. Moving from hearing to a more
engaged form of “listening” as we did – the kind which allows for silences to exist – reinforced
for me that knowledge, expressed through words, gestures, actions as well as silences are not
things we can go into a community or individual’s life and “get”. Rather, they are shared as gifts,
and as such come with obligations of reciprocity. This dissertation aspires to reciprocate the
sharing that Archie did with me by providing his community and my scholarly community with
not only an account of his life, but with an assessment of what his life reveals about pertinent
issues in Aboriginal and Native-Newcomer history – and through this process to hopefully
contribute to the ongoing efforts at building reconciliation between settler and Indigenous
societies.
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to Archie Charles and our families; those who are living, the ancestors
who watch over us, and those not yet born. This is for all those who inspired these thoughts,
which I carry with me from this point forward:

I give thanks to all the knowledge;
I give thanks to all the knowledge;
I give thanks to all the knowledge;
I give thanks to all the knowledge.
Here, There, and Everywhere.
We are all connected.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This has been a shared journey filled with the support, mentorship, love and effort of many. I
would first like to express my gratitude to my family, whom I not only love, but enjoy immensely.
I am particularly appreciative of my mother Charlotte, my grandmother Evelyn, my aunt Meg and
stepfather Paul, who translated the words of Joseph Campbell to “follow your bliss” by
encouraging me as a child to be curious and to appreciate the value of simple things: food,
laughter, stories, knowledge and learning. Thanks to Mike George for the spark that lit the fire. To
Melissa June Gus, Judy Brase and Selena Crosson for their unwavering support and for reading
and providing comments on drafts.
I would also like to thank all those at the University of Saskatchewan Department of History who
have helped me. To my supervisor, Keith Carlson, who supported and encouraged me over the
years—it has been an honour to work with you; to J.R. Miller, who has deeply enriched my
understanding of Native history and provides us all with a radiant example of how to be a good
scholar; to Jim Handy, from whom I have greatly enjoyed learning about global Indigenous
history; to Natalia Khanenko-Friesen, who has fed my mind and soul with works related to oral
history from around the world; and to Susan Gingell, who has thoughtfully commented on this
work and whose insight into literature, orality and literacy have been extremely helpful. Thank
you to Scott Sheffield, who has been more than generous with his time and knowledge of
Aboriginal military history. I have learned so much from each of you.
I extend a prayer of thanks to Archie, for providing a learning opportunity that has enriched my
life in known and unknown ways. To Archie’s family, particularly Tina Jack, Ronald “Zack” Joe
(Nwéwtn), Rose Charles, Caroline Credico, Lillian “Bugsy” Sylvester, Irene George, Lewis
“Lew” George, Thomas Crey and Dorothy Leon: thank you for adding your valued time, effort,
knowledge and shxwelí (spirit) to this work. I would like to extend my deepest thanks to all of
Archie’s family for always making me feel welcome over the years. Thank you to the Stó:lō
colleagues, friends and teachers whose interviews contributed to this work, including Chief
Dalton Silver (Lemxyaltexw), Sid Douglas (Sru-Ets-Lan-Ough), Grand Chief Clarence Kat
Pennier, Chief of Seabird Island Clem Seymour, and Sonny McHalsie (Naxaxalhts’i). The
knowledge of the following people has also greatly enriched this work: Mel Bailey, Ivan
McIntyre, Herb Joe (T’xwelátse), and Frank Malloway (Siyémches). Thank you to my colleagues
at Stó:lō SRRMC, particularly the Elders and members of the Lands Working Group—I am
deeply enriched through the opportunity to spend time with you and to learn. To those who have
always been willing to lend a helping hand: Kim, Karen, Dawn and Carman, or share a meal—
Birdie Garner and Parry Peters. I would like to thank my “west coast family”, Tia and John
Halstad (and Reo), for providing me with a true home away from home (including a dog to walk)
over the past ten years. Your love and support has made this possible. I would like to offer my
thanks to the Fraser River for providing me with a place of peace and contentment on a daily basis
while doing this work. Those who showed me what the River means have changed my life
forever. Finally, thank you to my dear friend and mentor, Frank Schriener, for kick-starting me
on my life path prior to his passing in 2004. Often I hear your laughter, feel your warmth and
reflect on your teachings. This is for you—I kept our promise. Thank you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PERMISSION TO USE……………………………………………………………………………………i
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………………….ii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………………iii
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS...………………………………………………………………………………iv
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………………...viii
LIST OF APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………………..x
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1
River People: Stó:lō Collective Identity and History ........................................................................... ….9
Stó:lō Oral Narratives: Sqwélqwel and Sxwōxwiyám .......................................................................... ...16
Origins of the Life History Project ...................................................................................................... ...23
Informal Collaboration: Dialogue ........................................................................................................ ...26
Formal Collaborative Features: Research Registry.............................................................................. ...27
Stó:lō Relationships with Anthropologists and Historians .................................................................. ...29
Decolonization of Stó:lō Research: Collaborative Research Methods and the History of Stó:lō
Community-Based Research………………………………………………………………………….…33
Shift from Traditional Biography to Life History and Testimonio: Historicizing the Told-To
Genre……………………………………………………………………………………………….……42
Historiography of Aboriginal Told-To Narratives on Northwest Coast……………………….………..47
Walk With Me: Intended Contributions of Research…………………………………………….……...53
Chapter Outlines………………….…………………………………………………………….….…….55

CHAPTER ONE: TELLING STORIES, LIVING HISTORY – TRANSLATION AND
INTERPRETATION OF THE LIFE NARRATIVE OF ARCHIE CHARLES…..………………….……59
Editing Oral Texts: Conventions for the Transcription, Translation and Interpretation of Oral
History……………………………………………………………………………………………….......61
Recording and Editing Aboriginal Oral History and Tradition: Considerations………………………..64
Archie Charles: An Historian in Spirit and a Man of Few Words…………………………………..…..69
How Did We Speak? Interviewing: The Art and Practice of “Doing Nothing”…………………..…….71
Finding Common Ground Through Dialogue………………………………………………………..….73
The Spirit of Collaboration: The Role of Biography……………………………………………..……..76
Archie as Narrator: Interpretation of Words, Silence, Public and Private Memories……………..….....79
Cultural Protocols for Communicating Sqwélqwel: Addressing Critical Appraisal
Locally and Culturally…..……………………………………………………….………….…….…...83
Sounds of Silence: Verification of Omissions, Silences and Private Memories………………….….86
Re-conceptualizing Community-Based Research (CBR) as Family-Based Research in
Archie Charles’ Life History…………………………………………………………………….…….88
From Dialogue To Polylogue: Inviting Multiple Voices………………………………………….……91
CHAPTER TWO: SQWÉLQWEL, COMMUNITY, FAMILY, RELIGION AND GROWING
UP ON SEABIRD ISLAND………………………………………………………………………….......94
Archie Charles, Son of a Logger - Ascending Genealogy, Birth and Biological Family………..….....96
Roman Catholicism on Seabird Island……………………………………………………………. 116
Stó:lō Ceremonialism in the Twentieth Century: Changes in Form, Function and Place……….........119
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….…..125

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CHAPTER THREE: NATIVE AND CHRISTIAN – A MULTIGENERATIONAL TESTIMONIAL
NARRATIVE OF RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL EXPERIENCE AND MEANING-
MAKING.………………………………………………………………………………………….…….127
Testimonial and Truth-Telling Related to Trauma and Residential Schools….………………………133
“He Didn’t Like to Talk About It”: Reflections on Oral History Methods Related to Trauma………134
A Multigenerational Residential School Narrative: Mary Charles ...................................................... .138
Mary Charles’ Syncretic Practice of Stó:lō and Christian Teachings: Shxwelí, Ancestral
Names and Protocols for Reciprocation……………………………………………………………140
School Days at Kamloops IRS: “We Were Called Devils.”.…………………………………………144
Archie: “They Tried to Kill our Language.” ........................................................................................ 149
Stó:lō Cultural Resistance and Revival in S’ólh Téméxw: Repatriation of Coqueleetza IRS……161
Resistance, Renewal and Healing at Kamloops IRS ............................................................................ 162
Reconciliation, Justice and Making Meaning: Archie’s Experiene………………………………..163
Chichelh Siyá:m and “the Big Guy”: How Archie Enacted a Syncretic Spiritual Practice…………..165
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 170
CHAPTER FOUR: THROUGH THE EYES OF A SOLDIER AND VETERAN – NEGOTIATING
STÓ:LŌ IDENTITIES IN WAR AND PEACETIME………………………………………………….173
History of Military Participation in Archie’s Family ........................................................................... 178
Racial and Institutional Politics Involved in Aboriginal WWII Army Enlistment .............................. 181
Archie’s Experience in Europe ............................................................................................................ 188
Return to Civilian Life: Re-negotiating Stó:lō Identity after WWII .................................................... 196
Diversity in Community Response to WWII Veterans: Zuni and Navaho .......................................... 201
Stó:lō Community Response to WWII Vets: Tension Between Stó:lō Traditional Warrior
and Contemporary Soldier .................................................................................................................. 203
Narrative Style in Oral History Narratives of Archie and Other Veterans .......................................... 205
Stó:lō WWII Veterans as the Next Generation of Political Leaders .................................................... 210
Treatment of Aboriginal and Stó:lō WWII Veterans: Changing Policy and Practice…………….214
Stó:lō Reconciliation, Recognition and Commemoration: 1993 Stó:lō War Veterans Project
and Pole Raising .................................................................................................................................. 216
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 218
CHAPTER FIVE: ELECTED STÓ:LŌ CHIEF AND SIYÁ:M – LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT IN AN ERA OF TRANSITIONAL NATIVE POLITICS………………………….220
Meeting “The Boss”, Soul Mate and Life Partner, Tina Jack .............................................................. 225
Maintaining A Stó:lō Practice of Inter-Family Adoption: “I Call it ‘Adopted’ But it Meant
We Were Just There For Them.” ......................................................................................................... 229
Becoming Siyá:m in an Era of Transitional Politics - The 1970s ....................................................... 238
Reserve-Based Development: Improving Housing Conditions and Building Infrastructure ............... 243
Creating Opportunities for Formal Western Education: The Genesis of Community-Based
Education on Seabird Island Reserve ................................................................................................... 245
Farming and Gardening: Stewardship and Economic Development ................................................... 248
Social Assistance: “It Killed Everything Here.” .................................................................................. 251
Protection and Promotion of Stó:lō Aboriginal Right, Title and Culture ............................................ 253
Engaged Cultural Revival: Seabird Island Festival ............................................................................. 258
Internal Recognition: “Grand Chief” ................................................................................................... 259
External Validation: Recipient of the Order of Canada ....................................................................... 260
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 262

CHAPTER SIX: ARCHIE CHARLES AS SIA:TELEQ – ENACTING HEREDITARY LEADERSHIP IN
THE STÓ:LŌ FIVE MILE FISHERY………………………………………………………………….264
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“Mental Mapping” of the Fraser Canyon by Stó:lō Peoples: Sxwōxwiyám and Sqwélqwel ................ 270
Stó:lō Relationships with the Land Carved in Stone: Rock Wall Fortifications ................................. 273
Prolonged Stó:lō Occupation and Use of Fishcamps: “A Home Away From Home.” ........................ 275
The Unique Connection Between the Five Mile Fishery and the Seabird Island Band ....................... 277
Cultural “Dislocation” Resulting from Aboriginal Policy - 1880s-1951 ........................................... 281
Conflict and Resolution: The Sustained Impact of Colonial Policy on Stó:lō Life ............................. 284
Transfer of Hereditary Caretaking for Fishcamp: Archie’s Family as Case Study ............................. 288
The Sia:teleq - Cultural Authority for Management of Stó:lō Hereditary Fishing Sites ..................... 299
Archie’s Legacy as Sia:teleq: Protection Through Inclusion and Education ....................................... 305
DFO Meeting 1998: Grounding Conflict Resolution in Place ............................................................. 307
Creation of the Elders’ Communal Fishing Spot ................................................................................. 308
Conclusion: “Archie’s Up There, We Should Be Too”- Call To Stó:lō Leaders to
Oversee Canyon Fishery ...................................................................................................................... 312

CONCLUSION: YOU NEVER SIT BY THE SAME RIVER TWICE – ASSESSING THE LEGACY OF
ARCHIE CHARLES AND THE COLLABORATIVE PROCESS IN RECORDING HIS TOLD-TO
NARRATIVE ........................................................................................................................................... 314
Life After Death: The Passing of Grand Chief and Elder Archie Charles…………………………316
Four Year Memorial for Grand Chief Archie Charles: Chehalis Longhouse
November 29, 2014…..……………………………………………………………………………..317
Archie Charles’ Life History: Research Process as Product ................................................................ 319
Listening with Our Hearts: Being Taught as Scholars How to Listen Locally .................................... 324
All Knowledge is Local Knowledge: The Importance of Experiencing Places as a
Means of Understanding Personal and Cultural Experience ................................................................ 326
Eating the Eyeball: Trust as Symbiotic and Building Trust and Rapport Over Time .......................... 329
Ensuring Local Benefits of Research ................................................................................................... 331
Re-imagining Community-Based Research as Family-Based Research in Archie’s Narrative ........... 333
Told-to Narratives as a Vehicle to Add Depth to Native-Newcomer Historiographic Relations ........ 334
Archie’s Legacy: Protection of Stó:lō Culture Through Education and Inclusion,
Vision for the Future ............................................................................................................................ 338
FIGURES .................................................................................................................................................. 342
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................... 375
APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................................... 378
APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................................... 380
APPENDIX D ........................................................................................................................................... 381
APPENDIX E ........................................................................................................................................... 382
APPENDIX F............................................................................................................................................ 383
APPENDIX G ........................................................................................................................................... 384
APPENDIX H ........................................................................................................................................... 385
WORKS CITED………………………………………………………………………………………...386
Oral History Interviews and Correspondence……………………………………………………...401
Newspapers Cited ................................................................................................................................ 404
Primary Sources ................................................................................................................................... 404
Websites and Digital Sources .............................................................................................................. 406

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Archie Charles and Meagan Gough at Archie’s Home on Seabird Island, 2006.
Figure 2.1 Archie Charles’Biological Father, Edward "Eddie" Coombs.
Figure 2.2 Archie Charles and Biological Sister Dorothy Leon (née Sepass). At Dorothy’s Home
on Katsie Reserve, 2008.
Figure 2.3 Mary and Dave Charles, circa 1950s.
Figure 2.4 Josephine Seymour, Mary Charles (on left) with Archie in Background Holding the
Horse at Agassiz Fair, 1927.
Figure 2.5 Seabird Island Immaculate Conception Church, 1963.
Figure 3.1 Kamloops Indian Residential School, Kamloops, British Columbia. (Photo courtesy of
www.irsr.ca )
Figure 3.2 Mary Charles circa 1960s.
Figure 3.3 Seabird Island School (Lalme' Iwesawtexw), circa 1995. (Photo from A Coast-Salish
Historical Atlas, 2001, 38)
Figure 4.1 Archie Charles' Biological Son, Edward "Eddy" Charles. Hope, British Columbia, circa
1943.
Figure 4.2 Archie Charles with Friend Pete Peters, Recently Out of School, circa 1938.
Figure 4.3 Archie Charles, Before Overseas Service, Seabird Island circa 1941.
Figure 4.4 Archie Charles and First Wife, Susan Pat, with Maria Slough Pictured in Foreground.
Near Seabird Island, circa 1946.
Figure 4.5 Archie Charles and Friends During the Historic 1948 Flood.
Figure 4.6 Archie Charles, Remembrance Day Ceremony held at Stó:lō Nation Offices,
Chilliwack, 2008.
Figure 5.1 Tina Jack (née Lewis), Age Thirteen. Chawathil Reserve, circa 1941.
Figure 5.2 Sonya Crey Wilson, Age 8 (on right), with Marion Wilson, Age 13.
Figure 5.3 “Playing Canoe”: (Back to front) Maggie Pat, Mary Crey, Jackie Kelly, Tina Jack (née
Lewis) at Age Three. Chawathil Reserve, circa 1931.
Figure 5.4 Archie Charles in His Beloved Role Cooking Salmon in BBQ Pit at Seabird Island
Festival, circa 1990’s.
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Figure 5.5 Archie Charles’ Retirement as Chief of Seabird Island. In Front of His House on
Seabird Island, 1998.
Figure 5.6 Order of Canada Ceremony, August 28, 2009, in Seabird Island. Front: Archie Charles,
Tina Jack. Back (from left): Gwen Point and Honourable Lieutenant Governor of British
Columbia, Steven Point, Caroline Credico, Kelsey Charles, Meagan Gough, Rose Charles.
Figure 6.1 Near Archie's Fishcamp, Fraser Canyon British Columbia.
Figure 6.2 Mary Charles Cutting Fish at Fishcamp, circa 1960’s.
Figure 6.3 Archie Charles Building a New Dryrack Structure, 1970.
Figure 6.4 Tina Jack’s Canned Salmon From 2008 Fishing Season.
Figure 6.5 Tina Jack, Illustrating How to Can Salmon at Fishcamp, July 2007.
Figure 6.6 Archie Charles Checking Wind-Dried Salmon Strips, What He Called “Indian Candy”,
Fishcamp, July 2009.
Figure 6.7 Archie Charles Harvesting Yew Wood Near Camp to Make Hoop for Fish Net, July,
2007.
Figure 6.8 Lewis George, Son of Tina Jack, Harvesting Berries and Spring Water at Fishcamp:
One of Many Non-fishing Activities. July, 2007.
Figure 6.9 Archie Charles Tightening Canned Salmon Lids at Fishcamp with Great-
Granddaughter Natasha (“Talks a Lot”) and Meagan Gough, July 2008.
Figure 6.10 Meeting Between Stó:lō Fishing Families and DFO, Held at Archie's Fishcamp, 1998.
Figure 7.1 Gathering in Front of Archie and Tina’s Home in Seabird Island, 2009. (From left to
right): Thomas Crey, Rose Charles, Caroline Credico, Natasha John, Irene George, Tina Jack,
Archie Charles, Meagan Gough, Lewis George.
Figure 7.2 Meagan Gough Eating Salmon Eyeball, Fishcamp July, 2007.

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