Chapter 4: Gender-based Patterns and Constraints in Rural Development

19 Pages·2015·2.01 MB·English

UNCTAD/LDC/2015
U N I T E D N AT I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N T R A D E A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
The LeasT DeveLopeD CounTries reporT 2015
Transforming Rural Economies
chapter 4
gendeR-based patteRns and constRaints
in RuRal development
New York and Geneva, 2015
CHAPTER4
gendeR-based patteRns
and constRaints in
RuRal development
114 The Least Developed Countries Report 2015
A. Introduction
As noted in Chapter 1, women make up around half of the agricultural labour
force of the least developed countries (LDCs), a proportion that has increased
progressively over time in all three geographical subgroups. Rural women play a
Women can be important agents
pivotal role in ensuring household food security and nutrition, particularly through
of rural economic diversifcation,
cultivation of home gardens, and can increase production and food security
and key players in vibrant micro- through improved agroecological practices and crop diversifcation. They can
entrepreneurial activities... also be important agents of rural economic diversifcation, and key players in
vibrant micro-entrepreneurial activities such as artisanal agroprocessing, which
have signifcant potential to be developed into viable enterprises. Their economic
and social empowerment also yields critical intergenerational benefts, helping to
make the next generation better fed, healthier and better educated, and thus
better equipped to contribute to the economy and society (FAO, 2011; World
Bank and ONE, 2014).
However, rural women in LDCs continue to face multiple constraints on their
... but face multiple constraints
access to land, credit, agricultural inputs, extension services, labour, markets
on their access to land, credit,
and education. Together, these constraints hinder women’s ability to engage
agricultural inputs, extension
productively in both farm and non-farm activities, and impede their development
services, labour, markets and
of commercial agricultural production. This pattern is reinforced by time and
education. mobility constraints arising from sociocultural gender-based norms that impose
a double burden in terms of unpaid care work and productive activities. It is also
reinforced by gender segregation in the labour market, which confnes women
largely to relatively low-income activities, and by intra-household decision-
making dynamics that limit their control over household income and their
infuence on spending priorities.
The problems of data availability, quality and interpretation that pervade rural
development (as discussed in Chapter 3) arise even more starkly in the context
of the gender dimensions of rural development, particularly as some gender
biases are ingrained in the data. Such biases are especially evident in gender-
Problems of data availability, quality
disaggregated household-level data based on “male-headed” and “female-
and interpretation are particularly
headed” households.
acute in the context of the gender
dimensions of rural development. Since the household head is often assumed to be the oldest man in the
household, irrespective of the role of women, households considered to be
female-headed are generally those headed by unmarried, widowed or divorced
women. Thus, observed differences partly refect the social and economic
challenges associated with single parenthood, and not only gender differences
as such (UNCTAD, 2014; UNECE and World Bank Institute, 2010). Equally,
differences between male- and female-headed households represent only one
aspect of gender in rural communities: The position of female members within
households (regardless of headship) raises signifcantly different issues, and
affects much more of the female population.
Differences between male- and
female-headed households partly In light of the limited availability of reliable and consistent data, this chapter
refect the social and economic draws primarily on data (including individual-level data wherever possible)
for individual LDCs to illustrate general patterns. However, it is important to
challenges associated with single
emphasize that gender roles in agriculture (and gender norms more broadly) are
parenthood.
highly context-specifc. The scope for generalization or wider extrapolation of
patterns from a small number of countries is therefore limited, especially among
a group of countries as geographically, economically and culturally diverse
as LDCs: The country examples provided highlight the diversity of national
experiences as much as their commonalities. Particularly in rural areas, gender
issues need to be assessed in each specifc geographic and cultural context,
which vary widely both between and within countries.
CHAPTER 4. Gender-based Patterns and Constraints in Rural Development 115
tI soh uld also be noted tah t eg nder-based ineuq alities are part o f a iw der
pattern o f multiple intersetc in g ineuq alities and soh uld be assessed in tih s
iw der oc ntetx , taik n g aoc unt bot h o f vertiac l ineuq alities in teh siez distribution
o f inoc me and o f oteh r oh rioz ntal ineuq alities rooted in raec , etnh iic t , y ac ste
and loac tion . aM n y o f teh smy ptoms and oc nseuq enec s o f eg nder ineuq alit y
epx erienec d b y ow men lc osel y ree� tc toh se o f povert y arc oss teh population as
a ohw le : landlessness , limited eduac tional attainment , la kc o f aec ss to rc edit ,
inputs and marek ts , et .c sA disuc ssed at teh end o f tih s ahc pter , tih s ah s maoj r
impliac tions of r poli yc approaehc s to eg nder ineuq alit . y
Gender-based inequalities are
part of a wider pattern of multiple
intersecting inequalities.
B. Gender divisions of labour
and employment patterns
ihW le teh roles o f men and ow men in arg iuc lture are etx remel y oc ntetx -
speic ,c� some overall patterns ac n be observed arc oss most DL Cs a( nd
developin g oc untries more eg nerall .)y ehT se relate partiuc larl y to ow mens’ double
burden o f produtc ive and ac“ re ” ow r ;k eg nder-based rc oppin g and marek tin g
patterns ; and eg nder-speic c� patterns o f emplomy ent and disrc imination in rural
labour marek ts .
1. women’s roles in the home and on the farm
Household tasks such as food
Rural ow mens’ double burden of productive and “reproductive” or preparation, childcare, and fetching
“care” work involves a iw de spetc rum o f atc ivities . lA toh u hg not den� ed as water and fuel wood are central
e“ oc nomiac ll y atc ive emplomy ent ” in national aoc unts , su hc oh useoh ld tassk to understanding the critical
as of od preparation , ihc ldac re , and ef tihc n g aw ter and uf el ow od are essential constraints women face in engaging
to oh useoh ld ew ll-bein .g ehT y are also ec ntral to understandin g teh rc itiac l
in productive work.
oc nstraints ow men af ec in enag ig n g in produtc ive ow r ,k notabl y in terms o f time
alloac tion and mobilit. y
aT ik n g su hc tassk into aoc unt , rural ow men tend to ow r k more tah n men ,
lareg l y ree� tc in g a division o f oh useoh ld responsibilities alon g eg nder lines
t( able ,)1.4 in ihw hc ow men oc mbine arg iuc ltural and non-af rm atc ivities iw t h
oh useoh ld ohc res , man y o f ihw hc are ver y time-intensive . ihT s oc mbination o f
Table 4.1. Time allocation by country, sex and activity in selected LDCs
(Average hours/day)
Lao Poeple’s
Ethiopia Malawi
Dem. Rep.
Activities Rural population by head
Rural population, 2013 2010/2011
of household, 2010
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Agricultural, livestock or fshing activities 7.9 5.2 2.3 2.2 3.4 2.6
Collection of frewood/fuel 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2
Collection of water 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.1 0.3
Wage work, professional activities and non-farm
2.2 1.5 9.8 8.2 0.6 0.3
business
Personal care and rest (including sleep) 13.7 13.3 n/a 15.4 14.7
Unpaid care work and domestic work 1.8 4.8 n/a 0.6 2.3
Sources:A ggregation by UNCTAD secretariat based on data from FAO/SIDA (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E) (2010b); Central Statistical
Agency of Ethiopia and World Bank (2013); Republic of Malawi (2012).
Note: Values may not add up to 24 hours due to the overlapping nature of some activities.
116 The Least Developed Countries Report 2015
productive activities and care work means that rural women are generally more
time-constrained than men, hampering their ability to engage fully in income-
generating activities. It also limits women’s mobility and the time they can
Men’s and women’s roles in
allocate to training and upgrading their skills.
agricultural production are socially
constructed and evolving, and vary Women work in agriculture as farmers on their own account, as unpaid family
widely between local contexts. workers, and as paid or unpaid labourers on other farms and in agro-enterprises
(FAO, 2011), and they face gender-specifc challenges and disadvantages in
all these roles. However, men’s and women’s roles in agricultural production
are socially constructed and evolving, and vary widely between local contexts,
refecting cultural and other differences between and within countries. While
the lines between men’s and women’s roles is thus generally blurred, and a full
analysis taking these factors into account is beyond the scope of this Report,
some general gender-specifc patterns can be found across many LDCs.
As discussed in Chapter 3, rural households in LDCs generally pursue multiple
livelihood strategies to diversify their income sources. For women, this typically
In all LDC regions, a much greater
entails some combination of producing crops, tending animals, processing
proportion of women workers than
food, pursuing other non-farm activities and occasionally working for wages
of men are classifed as (unpaid)
in rural-based agroprocessing (FAO, 2011). While men also tend to engage in
“contributing family workers”. mixed (crop and livestock) farming, this pattern is more pronounced for women,
who typically take care of kitchen gardens, work as unpaid family workers on
land managed by their husbands or partners, and manage individually assigned
plots, as well as attending to household chores.
Rural women perform a disproportionate share of unpaid agricultural
work. In all LDC regions, a much greater proportion of women workers than of
men are classifed as (unpaid) “contributing family workers”, the proportion being
1
more than twice as high in Asian LDCs and in African LDCs and Haiti. While
these data are for the national level (including urban areas), unpaid contributing
family workers are generally found mainly in the agricultural sector (ILO, 2008).
While women tend to predominate
in small-scale marketing of staple
While there is some validity to the widely held perception of export and other
crops in local markets, it is generally cash crops as “male crops”, and of subsistence and staple foods as “female
men who market export crops. crops”, this is an oversimplifcation (FAO, 2011; USAID, 2015a). Women are
generally as active as men in cash crop production, often providing the bulk of
labour on contracted farms. There are, however, important gender differences
in control over the commercial proceeds (men are contracted, while women
supply unpaid family labour) and in the scale of operations (due to the constraints
women face on increasing sales of their produce).
While women tend to predominate in small-scale marketing of staple crops in
local markets, it is generally men who market export crops, signing out-grower
Table 4.2. Status in total employment in LDCs, by sex, 2014
(Per cent)
rfA iac n LDCs and aH iti sA ian LDCs sI land LDCs
pmE loemy nt status
aM le eF am le aM le eF am le aM le eF am le
a. Wage and salaried workers 22.9 10 23.7 15.5 20.6 15.5
b. Employers 2.2 0.7 1.0 0.7 1.4 0.3
c. Own-account workers 57.4 49.5 62.8 38.7 50.8 39.0
d. Contributing family workers 17.5 39.7 12.5 45.2 27.2 45.2
Vulnerable employment (c+d) 74.9 89.2 75.3 83.9 78.0 84.2
Source: UNCTAD secretariat calculations, based on data from ILO, Global Employment Trends 2014: supporting data sets: Employment by
status and sex (http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/get/2014/GET_sector_share.xlsx) (accessed July 2015).
Note: Data for the following countries are unavailable: Djibouti, Kiribati, Sao Tome and Principe, South Sudan, Sudan (Former), Timor-
Leste, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.
CHAPTER 4. Gender-based Patterns and Constraints in Rural Development 117
oc ntratc s and oc ntrollin g teh proec eds o f sales oW( rld aB n ,k OA F and DA FI ,
;902 Croppenstedt , Goldstein and Rosas , .)3102 vE idenec rf om a number o f
studies points to similar dny amisc in bot h traditional epx ort setc ors e( .g. oc oc a ,
oc ef e and tea ) and non-traditional epx orts e( .g. rf uit , oh rtiuc lture and o� ew rs .) nI
The pattern of “male” and “female”
Raw nda , of r eax mple , ihw le ow men are as atc ive as men in rg oiw n g oc ef e , and
crops varies widely between and
deliver it to aw sih n g stations on oteh r dasy , it is eg nerall y men ohw do so on teh
within LDCs.
da y ehw n pamy ent is made DA FI( , .)0102
aB sed on teh eg nder o f teh primar y onw er or manaeg r o f plots , teh pattern
o f m“ ale ” and ef“ male ” rc ops varies iw del y betew en and iw tih n DL Cs t( able .)3.4
uS rve y data of r Raw nda soh w remarak bl y similar rc oppin g patterns betew en
plots onw ed or uc ltivated b y ow men and b y men . ehT re are also relativel y
limited dief renec s in aM laiw , altoh u hg tobaoc is rg onw on 4.01 per ec nt o f
male-manaeg d plots , oc mpared iw t h 3.3 per ec nt o f ef male-manaeg d plots . nI
aL o Peoples’ Demorc ati c Republi ,c oh ew ver , rc oppin g on male-manaeg d plots
Some agricultural tasks tend to be
is more diversie� d , 6.32 per ec nt o f teh uc ltivated area bein g dediac ted to non-
predominantly female activities.
riec uc ltivation , oc mpared iw t h 9.01 per ec nt on ef male-manaeg d plots.
vA ailable time-use survesy soh w tah t some agricultural tasks e( .g.
ew edin ,g plantin g and ah rvestin )g tend to be predominantl y ef male atc ivities ,
ihw le oteh rs e( .g. plouihg n ,g spraiy n ,g and loadin g and unloadin g produec )
are tpy iac ll y undertaek n b y men . nI teh agU ndan oc ef e setc or , of r eax mple ,
ow men are tpy iac ll y enag eg d in tendin g oc ef e plants , piikc n g and driy n g oc ef e ,
and men in plantin ,g prunin g and marek tin g eV( rah rt and Pby urn , .)2102 nI aL o
Peoples’ Demorc ati c Republi ,c ow men are more enag eg d in transplantin g riec ,
Livestock activities tend to be
ew edin ,g ah rvestin ,g post-ah rvest operations and marek tin ,g and men in land
characterized by specialization
preparation , plouihg n g and ef nic n g DIS/OA F( ,A b0102 .)
along gender lines.
Pastoralist and miex d af rmin g ssy tems are also b y and lareg ahc ratc eriez d
b y speic aliaz tion o f livestock activities alon g eg nder lines , inlc udin g iw tih n
oh useoh lds . oW men tend to raise poultr y and dair y animals , as ew ll as rabbits
and oteh r animals oh used iw tih n teh oh mestead ,OA F( ;102 Gueyè , ;02 akO li
and iM ms , ;891 aT nakg , aJ bbar and ahS piro , ,)02 and are also tpy iac ll y
Table 4.3. Crops grown by sex of primary owner/manager
Malawi Rwanda Lao People’s Dem. Republic
2010/2011 2010 2010
Crop type
Per cent of plots Per cent of crop production Per cent of area cultivated
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Maize 64 75 8.1 8 8.9 2.7
Pigeon peas 14.7 21.3 - - -  - 
Groundnuts 15.1 17 - - -  - 
Tobacco 10.4 3.3 - - 0.1 - 
Beans 5.5 6.2 15.7 17.1 - - 
Sorghum 4.3 6.4 4.2 4.1 -  - 
Rice 2.7 3.1 0.6 0.4 76.4 89.1
Coffee -  -  1.6 1.5 3.6 2.9
Tea -  -  0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3
Cassava -  - 10.2 9.6 - - 
Sweet potatoes -  -  8.7 8.9 -  - 
Potatoes -  -  3.9 3.9 -  - 
Sources: FAO/SIDA (2010b, table 5.1, p. 37); Republic of Malawi (2012, table 9.9, p. 139) and Republic of Rwanda (2011, table 4.6, p. 37).
118 The Least Developed Countries Report 2015
engaged in feeding pigs and poultry, grazing and watching goats, and selling
small livestock and produce in the markets (FAO/SIDA, 2010b). Eggs, milk and
poultry, in particular, tend to be female-intensive sectors, while men often have a
prominent role in managing cattle.
2. non-farm aCtivities and employment
Participation rates for both men and
women are generally lower in non- Participation rates for both men and women are generally lower in non-farm
farm activities than in agriculture. activities than in agriculture. Time-use data indicate that activities such as petty
trading and retailing tend to be carried out more by female than male household
members, while men have greater opportunities in other non-agricultural
sectors, such as construction and transport. In Ethiopia, for example, 22.2 per
cent of rural women are engaged in non-farm activities, compared with 16.4
per cent of men (Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia and World Bank, 2013).
In Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 48 per cent of the household members
involved in non-farm activities are women, the great majority (77 per cent) of
them working in wholesale and retail trade (FAO/SIDA, 2010b).
As illustrated by the case of Gambia (box 4.1), sectors such as fsheries
Gender patterns of employment also exhibit marked differences in roles between men and women in terms of
are more clearly articulated in products, scale of production and markets.
agroprocessing than in traditional
Gender patterns of employment are more clearly articulated in agroprocessing
small-scale agriculture.
than in traditional smal-scale agriculture. Artisanal agroprocessing is a
traditionally female occupation in many countries; and agro-industrial processing
of high-value products such as fsh, fowers and livestock products exhibits a
marked occupational pattern by gender, characterized by predominantly female
employment (table 4.4) and signifcant occupational segregation by sex.
Even when rural women are in wage employment, they are more likely
than men to be segregated in part-time, seasonal and/or low-wage jobs (FAO,
2011). In all three countries analysed in detail in Chapter 3 (Bangladesh, Nepal
and Malawi), for example, rural women are signifcantly more likely than men
There are large gender gaps
2
to be in part-time, seasonal or low-wage work in agriculture (RIGA database/
in formal and informal wage
survey data; FAO, 2011). Data from the ILO and the Rural Income Generating
employment in rural areas, with
Activities (RIGA) project also show large gender gaps in formal and informal
wider differences in Asian than wage employment in rural areas, with wider differences in Asian than African
African LDCs. LDCs (chart 4.1).
While such differences in employment status and wage patterns may partly
refect differences in education, work experience and personal choices (e.g.
preference for part-time or seasonal jobs because of family obligations), they
also refect cultural stereotypes and social norms (Boserup, 2007).
Box 4.1. The Gambian fsheries sector
In the Gambian fsheries sector, men and women tend to produce different products, operate on different scales and serve
different markets, resulting in specifc gender-based production and trade patterns throughout the supply chain. Upstream
activities (catching fsh or harvesting shellfsh) tend to be male-dominated, although women often play a prominent role in
specifc market segments. For example, oyster harvesters are predominantly women, of a particular ethnic group.
Downstream activities (artisanal processing and marketing) are highly gendered. Women operate mainly on a small scale,
marketing fsh directly to domestic and inland urban markets, while men tend to operate in the (more capital-intensive) long-
distance trade, and are the major suppliers to processing factories. This is also refected in processing techniques and the
products marketed: Women generally produce dried or smoked fsh (mainly bonga and catfsh) of relatively short shelf life
(about three days) for urban and inland markets, while men sell smoke-dried products with a longer shelf life, and are the
main suppliers of fresh higher-value species such as sole and shrimps to export-processing factories.
Source: UNCTAD and EIF (2014).
CHAPTER 4. Gender-based Patterns and Constraints in Rural Development 119
Table 4.4. Share of female workers in selected high-value agro-industries in selected LDCs
Share of female workers
Country Commodity Year of survey
(Per cent)
French beans 2005 90
Senegal*
Cherry tomatoes 2006 60
Uganda* Flowers 1998 75
Zambia* Vegetables 2002/03 65
Gambia** Fish processing 2014 71
United Republic of Tanzania*** Flowers, vegetables 2008/2009 60
Sources: * FAO (2011), ** UNCTAD and EIF (2014), *** TPAWU (2011).
Chart 4.1. Gender wage gap in agriculture in selected LDCs
39
40
31
30
26
24
20
10
10
0
Ethiopia Madagascar United Rep. Nepal Yemen
of Tanzania
Sources: Ethiopia: National Labour Force Survey 2013; Madagascar: Enquête Nationale sur l’Emploi et le Secteur Informel 2012; Nepal: Nepal
Labour Force Survey 1999; United Republic of Tanzania: Employment and Earnings Survey 2012; Yemen: Child Labour Survey 2010.
eN w of rms o f orag niaz tion in suppl y ahc ins ac n present ne w opportunities
of r rural ow men , but also ne w ahc lleneg s ,OA F( DA FI and ,OLI .)0102 pxE ort-
oriented arg o-industries and assoic ated ih -hg value smalloh lder oc ntratc
af rmin g and estate produtc ion ma y provide ne w oj bs and better emplomy ent
opportunities of r ow men ; and in epx ort-oriented arg o-industries , aw eg s tend
to be ih ehg r and ow rik n g oc nditions less burdensome tah n in man y traditional
New forms of organization in
marek t semg ents ,OA F( ;102 aM ertens and iwS nnen , ;902 Deere , .)502
supply chains can present new
oH ew ver , ow men ow rek rs in arg oproec ssin g are tpy iac ll y serg eag ted in unsik lled
opportunities for rural women, but
labour-intensive atc ivities su hc as paakc ig n ,g iw t h limited opportunities of r sik lls
also new challenges.
development , and in some setc ors e( .g. o� riuc lture ) ris k epx osure to pestiic des
and oteh r ah az rdous oc nditions . aL bour-intensive setc ors epx osed to stron g
international oc mpetition e( .g. o� ew rs ) tend to eg nerate preac rious lo-w aw eg
emplomy ent , and are etx remel y vulnerable to demand soh skc in oc nsumin g
oc untries , ihw hc are otf en passed on to emploey es trh ou hg dismissals .
iS milarl , y ihw le it is possible to leveraeg ih -hg value smalloh lder oc ntratc af rmin g
to empoew r ow men , tih s ac n also be a veih lc e of r ne w dny amisc o f epx loitation ,
partiuc larl y ehw n ow mens’ involvement is as unpaid af mil y ow rek rs .
120 The Least Developed Countries Report 2015
C. Obstacles to women’s greater contribution
to rural development
As stated earlier, rural women in LDCs face a number of gender-specifc
diffculties in accessing productive assets and services, including land, credit,
farm inputs, extension services, labour and markets, resulting in signifcant
gender differences in production per hectare. These multiple constraints
contribute to low agricultural productivity (Chapter 2 of this Report) as well as
limiting the dynamic potential of female ventures in rural areas, and thus risk
inhibiting the long-term growth and diversifcation potential of rural economies.
Gender inequality in control over
1. gender differenCes in assets: land and livestoCk
land does not generally result
from formal discrimination in land Data from numerous LDCs across all geographical groups display a
ownership or inheritance rights. consistent pattern of gender inequality in control over land, with men controlling
much more land than women (chart 4.2).
3
Indicators based on laws and regulations for 25 African and Asian LDCs
suggest that this inequality does not generally result from formal discrimination
in land ownership or inheritance rights. Women have land ownership rights
in all these countries, and in only one (Democratic Republic of the Congo) is
this affected by their marital status. However, formal discrimination persists in
inheritance rights in a number of countries: Women have inheritance rights as
daughters or surviving spouses in 16 cases, but not in seven others (Bangladesh,
Nepal, Senegal, Sudan, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania and Yemen), and
in one other (Lesotho) daughters do not have equal rights with sons. In many
cases, the principle of equality between men and women is enshrined in the
national Constitution and overrides any contrary customary practice.
Chart 4.2. Male and female agricultural holders in selected LDCs
(Per cent)
100
8 8 6 3 9 5 8
90 19 15 16 19 15
25 23
31 32 33
80
70
60
50
92 92 94 97 91 95 92
40 81 85 84 81 85
74 77
69 68 67
30
20
10
0
Male Female
Sources: FAO, FAO Gender and Land Rights database, which is based on agricultural censuses (accessed May 2015).
Note: Sex of holder of agricultural holdings. As defned in agricultural censuses, the agricultural holder makes the major decisions regard-
ing the use of resources, and exercises management control over the agricultural holding. An agricultural holding is an economic
unit of agricultural production under single management. Percentages of women and men holders by country do not always sum
to 100 in case of e.g. joint holdings or unreported gender.
Burkina Faso
Ethiopia
Gambia
Guinea
Haiti
Lesotho
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mozambique
Senegal
Uganda
Zambia
Bangladesh
Myanmar
Nepal
Comoros
CHAPTER 4. Gender-based Patterns and Constraints in Rural Development 121
uhT s , eg nder dief renec s in oc ntrol over land mainl y ree� tc soic ouc ltural
barriers ensrh ined in uc stomar y la w and pratc iec s , rateh r tah n ic vil la w b( o x
,)2.4 ihw hc leads to maoj r ahc lleneg s in translatin g leag l enatc ments on land
onw ersih p and ineh ritanec into eef tc ive de af tc o rithg s . aM oj r impediments
inlc ude patriarahc l uc ltural norms embedded in uc stomar y pratc iec s ,
oc mpliac tions in teh of rmal reig stration proec ss e( .g. teh need of r a of rmal Gender differences in control over
marriaeg ec rtiac� te of r oj int reig stration o f land ) and la kc o f leag l aaw reness
land mainly refect sociocultural
CNU( DA T , .)4102 uS hc diuc� f lties ma y be rg eater ehw re men and ow men
barriers enshrined in customary law
oc mpete of r sac rec land . oW men ohw are not of rmall y married af ec partiuc lar
and practices, rather than civil law.
obstalc es in seuc rin g euq alit y and non-disrc imination in ineh ritanec rithg s . nI
partiuc lar , ow men in unreig stered uc stomar y la w unions , inlc udin g polagy mous
unions , otf en ah ve no leag l entitlements , as do toh se oc ah bitin g iw toh ut of rmal
or uc stomar y marriaeg .
ehT re are also marek d eg nder dief renec s in onw ersih p o f livesto ,kc ree� tc in g
teh patterns o f eg nder speic aliaz tion outlined in eS tc ion 1.B b( o x .)3.4
2. human Capital: eduCation and literaCy
Rural ow men , and ef male eh ads o f oh useoh ld in partiuc lar , tend to ah ve
loew r litera yc rates and sing iac� ntl y ef ew r ey ars o f eduac tion tah n teh ir male Rural women, and female heads of
oc unterparts . ihT s translates into substantial oc mpetitive disadvantaeg s of r household in particular, tend to have
ef male-eh aded oh useoh lds , of r eax mple , in aec ssin g and usin g marek t lower literacy rates and signifcantly
inof rmation and etx ension serviec s ; appliy n g of r rc edit ; and oc mpliy n g iw t h
fewer years of education than their
importin g oc untries ’ produtc standards , partiuc larl y in relation to sanitar y and
male counterparts.
ptyh osanitar y PS( )S measures CNU( DA T ;102 CNU DA T .)4102
nI Cambodia , of r eax mple , 67 per ec nt o f male members o f arg iuc ltural
oh useoh lds ah ve oc mpleted at least one level o f sohc olin ,g oc mpared iw t h 6
per ec nt o f ef male members . aB si c litera yc is also more iw despread amon g
male tah n ef male oh useoh ld eh ads , iw t h sing iac� nt dief renec s arc oss reig ons :
Box 4.2. Women’s access to land in Malawi, Rwanda and Lesotho
Customar y pratc iec s dief r iw del y betew en reig ons , oc untries and etnh i c rg oups . aM laiw eex mplie� s bot h teh resilienec
and teh oc mpleix t y o f su hc pratc iec s . oF rmall , y ehw n a uh sband dies , teh propert y is ineh rited b y ih s iw ef and ihc ldren . tcA ual
pratc iec s , oh ew ver , are varied and more oc mple .x nI some distritc s , besides teh survivin g iw ef , propert y ac n be ineh rited
onl y b y male ihc ldren , based on an assumption tah t an y land eh ld b y ig rls ow uld be lost to outsiders atf er teh ir marriaeg .
uqE all , y on marriaeg , ig rls reec ive items oc nsidered more appropriate of r ow men , su hc as ik tehc n utensils , rateh r tah n land .
nI oteh r distritc s , propert y is sah red euq all y betew en male and ef male ihc ldren ; but ehw n ig rls eg t married and move out o f
teh oh useoh ld , teh y leave teh ir land beih nd . ihW le teh y ma y resume use o f teh land onec teh y return to teh ir oh me villaeg ,
teh y do so under teh ir broteh rs ’ autoh rit . y
nI Raw nda , prorg essive leag l enatc ments ah ve oc nstituted sing iac� nt steps toaw rds redressin g uc stomar y pratc iec s
tah t marig naliez ow men in land oc ntrol . nI partiuc lar , teh 502 land la w rO( ag ni c aL nd aL w oN . )502/80 ug arantees euq al
onw ersih p rithg s of r men and ow men ; and , under teh aL nd eT nure Reug larisation prorg amme , leag ll y married iw ves must be
reig stered as oc -onw ers o f teh land . aB sed on data rf om teh Raw nda aN tural Resourec s uA toh rit , y 62 per ec nt o f teh total
reig stered land in Raw nda aw s onw ed b y ow men in ,3102 and 45 per ec nt aw s oj intl y onw ed b y ef male and male spouses .
oN neteh less , de af tc o male oc ntrol o f land remains deepl y entrenehc d . aF rmlands are etx remel y rf amg ented in Raw nda , iw t h
an averaeg af rm siez o f onl y 67.0 eh tc ares R( epubli c o f Raw nda , ;)0102 and provisions aag inst teh rf amg entation o f land
tenure enrc oa hc on teh prinic ple o f euq al ineh ritanec rithg s of r ihc ldren DA FI( , .)0102 yB la , w plots not eecx edin g an area o f 1
eh tc are – some 08 per ec nt o f af rms – ac nnot be uf rteh r partitioned . ehW re tih s prevents a plot rf om bein g partitioned amon g
ihc ldren , it is eh ld on beah l f o f teh af mil y in oc mmunalaf/ milial possession b y a sinlg e eh ir – oc mmonl y teh oldest male ihc ld
CNU( DA T , .)4102 ihT s sah red responsibilit y oc nec als patterns o f male oc ntrol over teh land.
nI eL sotoh , virtuall y all ow men in rural areas are married b y uc stom or tradition r( ateh r tah n under ic vil la ,)w so tah t matters
related to marriaeg , land onw ersih p and suec ssion are aduj diac ted b y loac l uc stomar y aB( suto ) oc urts , on teh basis o f
uc stomar y la , w rateh r tah n under ic vil la . w nI uc stomar y pratc iec , onl y a male ihc ld ac n ineh rit land , ihw le ow men ac n neiteh r
enter into oc ntratc s nor onw propert y in teh ir onw names . tI is also noteow rt yh tah t eL sotoh s’ 391 Constitution plaec s
respetc of r uc stomar y pratc iec s uc( ltural rithg s ) above respetc of r individual ic vil rithg s.
Sources : aM laiw uH man Rithg s Commission ,)602( DA FI ,)0102( CNU DA T 2102( and .)4102