Challenger 1 & 2: Spearhead of the British Royal Armoured Corps (Concord 7505)

49 Pages·2001·9.37 MB·English

by  Walter Bohm

MINICOlORSERIES ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Text by Bohn1 and Peter Siebert
W~:ll!er
Illustrations by Hubert Cance
Introduction

- -'C British experience in the development and fielding of But the British Army still needed a replacement for the
-_::k tanks has a long tradition and can be traced back to Chieftain tank t1eet, and British industry received no export
_ -:~~nt campaigns of World War One. From July 1916 and orders after the cancelled Shir Iran contracts. This prompted the
-_-~t"S on the Somme river and near Cambrai, the British British government to safeguard employment, to buy the
_ Slaff gained a lot of experience, beginning with the FV 4030/3, and to introduce it into service for the British
_ --:Cot of the first main battle tank, the Mark 1. The British forces.The general configuration of Shir Iran 2 MBT was taken
- :;-is new weapon system the "tank", a term that became over, and only slight modifications were necessary to adopt the
-_ ti011S for all subsequently built armored tracked combat tank to the European theatre.
_ _ l.I over the world.
This improved versIOn of FV4030/3, with its
- -=--:- the tank is one of the main players on the 21st hydropneumatic suspension, was given the code name
- =3t lefield, representing a highly mobile, armored and "FV4030/4 Challenger". On the production-line Challenger
- - 'C,j weapon system like the Challenger main battle tank. MBT, the night vision system was no longer mounted on the
~.o.:iks have enough punch and firepower to detect the turret roof (like the prototypes had), its location being changed
_ _::. ck and destroy him, support other combat elements, to the right side of the turret. This considerably reduced the
::-~ 'ate with them in a modern combined arms warfare overall height of the vehicle. Produced by the Royal Ordnance
Factory in Leeds, the first Challenger Is were delivered to the
BIitish Army in 1983. The Royal Hussars, based in West
Jopment of the FV4030/4 Challenger 1 MBT Germany, were the first armored regiment to be equipped with
; r<.; ~ :oteresting history of the FV 4030/4 Challenger main the Challenger 1 MBT.
- Ua'­ -- ' egan in 1971, when Iran ordered 1,300 new MBTs
;elg­
-:- 3ritish government. The FV4030 project would be a In the 1980s there were plans to equip seven tank regiments
-.:=-=- Ie
-:"'_ Chieftain MBT, and the project received the name with Challenger 1 MBTs. The price for one new tank was two
--=-::". I Lion of Persia).The first batch of 187 FV 4030/1 million Pounds Sterling in 1987. By January 1995, the British
_, delivered to Iran in 1976. But the FV4030/1 Shir Army had 372 Challenger 1 MBTs in operational deployment.
Jlz­ - ,::lJ a Chieftain with modified components such as an
FriL _ _ ~." ~~arbox, upgraded mine protection, additional shock Turret and Weaponry of the Challenger 1 MBT'
SSG- _- j~ld extra fuel capacity. The Challenger 1 is armed with the Royal Ordnance Lll A5
120mm rit1ed gun. This weapon proved itself well during long
~ _ =-:-XI step was the FV 4030/2 Shir Iran 1, with an years of use in the Chieftain MBT. The gun barrel is fitted with
'7"':: ;.] .J. 11 with more space to accomodate the new Rolls a fume extractor, a muzzle reference system and a thermal
= -:--; ;ne. The first prototypes of this model were sleeve. The rit1ed gun can fire a wide range of ammunition,
:-_~:C to Irani officers in 1977. Because there were some including APDS-T, APFSDS-T, HESH, HESH-practice, and
_~~-_-J ;-~ _blems with the new TN-37 gearbox, the production smoke WP.
~ :opped. At the same time development of the
~ -hir Iran 2 continued. This version received the The turret of the Challenger 1 is of welded construction and
: -:; ned turret with the top secret Chobham sandwich is protected with the Chobham sandwich layer armor. This most
- -~ ",:chnical problems of the Shir Iran 1 were solved advanced armor provides protection against today's anti-tank
- ,:. j-tion line reactivated in 1978, but with the fall of weapons. The four-man crew has two turret-mounted 7.62mm
;-lran, all contracts were cancelled in 1979. machine guns for self-protection, for air defense and for use
against soft-skin targets. Five smoke dischargers are mounted
~ - ...yal Jordanian Army adopted a portion of the on each side of the tun'et for additional defense .
.:.:-..1 under the name "Khalid MBT" (FV4030/2),
~-----. _:) and 300 vehicles were delivered to Jordan. For the Hull and Power Train of the Challenger 1
;equirements, the Khalid was equipped with a The hull of the Challenger 1 is of welded construction with
~_ _ __ :IJe control system (IFCS) and a day/night version a conventional layout of the driver in the middle of the front, the
~ sight. turret basket in the mid-area, and the power train on the rear.
The hydropneumatic suspension and a better power-to-weight
the
~ ~: .': fall of the Shah of Iran and the changeover of ratio give the tank good agility while traveling on streets and
"~:',e revolutionary government, the contracts for the going cross-country. This is one of the main advantages of the
- ~ \lBT (FV4030/3) were also cancelled. Only a few Challenger lover the Chieftain MBT. The heavy 62-ton
-- :.=:; left the production lines. After this, the British and Challenger 1 is powered by a Perkins Condor 12-cylinder diesel
~-:r.~: :l armament industry made an agreement of engine with 1200 bhp. The regular high speed on streets is up to
:·i
_ -~ for the development of an MBT 80/Kampfpanzer 3 56 km/h (35 miles), but during training the tank crews can push
-_-:-:cusing costs and ineffective two-line development their Challengers up to 70 km/h (44 miles). The hull is 9.87 m
--: ;' ~ -.ject worthless, however, so it was cancelled in the (32 feet) long, but with the gun in combat position its length is
1l.55 m (38 feet). The Challenger's overall height is 3.04 m (10
3
ft) and its overall width is 3.52 m (11.5 ft). The tank can ford produced by Atlas that can lift a complete powerpack froIL
rivers up to 1.07 m (3.5) deep without preperation. Challenger 1 or 2. There was a total order for 80 CRARR'.
and Vickers Defence Systems delivered the last vehicles to
Variants of the Challenger 1 - TOGS Blitish Army in 1993. Now the vehicle has the official name
In addition to the advanced mobility, effective Chobham "Rhino".
armour, better reliability, and easier maintenance of the
Challenger l's new power train, the TOGS sight system is one Operation "Desert Sabre": Challenger 1 in the Gr
of the major innovations of the MBT. TOGS stands for War 0 990-91)
Theramal Observation Gunnery System. With this system, the During the Cold War era, the Blitish Army Challenger
commander and gunner can detect, observe, track, and engage armored regiments prepared to defend against a suspect:
targets no matter the light or weather conditions. The system is aggressive action by Warsaw Pact forces in the lowlands
completely passive, so observation cannot be detected by the northem Gennany. After the fall of the Berlin Wall and ..
enemy and the tank's position is not revealed. weakening of the resolve of the former Soviet Union, this te..
became obsolete.
The TOGS is divided into two major components: the
Thermal Surveillance System (TSS) and the Gunnery Sighting The Challenger I underwent its trial by fire during .,
System (GSS). With the TSS, all objects that are hotter or cooler ground war in the Iraqi-Kuwaiti desert during the Gulf War
than the background can be detected. The main element of the 1991. After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the Briti
TSS is the Thennal Imager Sensor Head (TISH). The other government decided in October 1990 to transfer the ~
major part of TOGS is the Gunnery Sighting System (GSS), Armoured Brigade, which was based in northern Germany,
which creates a visible picture based on all data from TISH and the Saudi Arabian desert. The 7th Armd. Bde. contained t\
other sources. The commander and gunner both have individual Challenger 1 regiments: the Royal Scots Dragoon Guar_
displays to "see" the computer-created picture. (Scots DG) and the Queen's Royal llish Hussars (QRIH). ThE'
was also one mechanized infantry regiment in the briga.:;
Evolution of the Challenger equipped with Warrior armored personnel carriers ar
When the Challenger 1 was introduced in 1983, the TOGS additional combat support elements.
was still under development, so the first tanks were fitted with
the TOGS barbette on the right side of the turret but with The British units were to reinforce the U.S. Marine COI7
nothing inside. The Challenger without the TOGS was called units. The primary duty of the 114 Challenger Is from Scots D
Challenger 1 Mk.l. When all these tanks are fitted with the and QRIH was to protect the Saudi Arabian border against
disposable TOGS system, their name gets changed to possible Iraqi advance. Later the 4th Annoured Brigade w_
Challenger 1 Mk.2. Tanks produced later that came with TOGS also redeployed from their bases in Germany to the desert. Tr
from the production line are also named Challenger 1 Mk.2. The 4th Armd. Bde.'s main strength was the 58 Challenger 1 MB~
final production model of the Challenger 1 had some in the 14th/20th King's Hussars.
improvements in the internal layout and the ammunition
stowage compartment to better protect them when hit. This last Before the ground offensive and in expectation of house-D
batch is called Challenger 1 Mk.3. house fighting in Kuwait City, the Challenger 1 was supplic­
with the Chobham add-on armor panels along the side skirts a1
Challenger Armored Repair and Recovery Vehicle Explosive Reactive Anuour (ERA) blocks on the glacis pia'
CRARRV ("Rhino") and lower front hulL The 4th and 7th Armd. Bdes. were divide.
With a combat weight of 62 tons, the Challenger 1 is one of and reorganized into battle groups .
the heaviest tanks in NATO's inventory, too heavy for the
Chieftain ARRV recovery vehicle. In 1985, the British On February 24, 1991, Challenger 1 Mk.3s from 1s t (UK
govemment orderd 30 new recovery tanks based on the Armd. Div. crossed phase line New Jersey on the eastern flaL
Challenger chassis. Royal Ordnance Leeds and Vickers Defence of the VII (US) Armored Corps. The goal of the advance was [
Systems were chosen to build these vehicles. crush an Iraqi mechanized brigade, and by midnight the attac
had succeeded. The Challenger 1 MBT proved itself worthwhC
The first CRARRV trial vehicle was tested in 1987, and in despite the poor conditions for tank-versus-tank combat. Whi:
1989 the line production for the CRARRV began. Right before fighting in darkness and rain against a hard-fighting and mobi
the end of the Gulf War, 12 CRARRVs were deployed. They Iraqi enemy, the British forces were sometimes firing their gur
proved their reliability and utility during recovery and less than 500 meters from the enemy. The next day th
maintainance operations with broken-down vehicles on the Challenger Is from 14th/20th King's Hussars - part of the 4\,
Kuwati front line. Armd. Bde. deployed to the south - continued the advanc
against the intensive resistance of the entrenched Iraqi 5211
The CRARRV can offer both maintenance and recovery for Tank Brigade.
all vehicles in the inventory of the British Army. The standard
equipment on the vehicle includes a 52-ton hydraulic main On their way north along the Kuwait-Basra highway, the 1
winch, an independent additional winch, a front-mounted (UK) Armoured Division battle groups destroyed elements c
multipurpose blade, and a hydraulically operated crane the Iraqi 12th Tank Division and reserve units from the 25L
4
:51On. During the "lOO-Hour War", Challenger Challenger 2's Turret and Armament
:-.~rt in the destruction of 300 hostile main battle The heavy armored tunet is of newly designed welded
~:: _:: unknown number of armored vehicles. No construction and uses the Chobham armor technology. The
_-:-- .-... s hit by Iraqi gun fire or anti-tank missiles. It was main weapon is the new easy-to-handle 120mm L30 Charm
-=..:: a Challenger knocked out an Iraqi tank with its Gun, which has a maximum distance of 9,000 meters (9,837
- _: :. distance of over 5,100 meters (5,574 yards). For yards). In addition to a wide range of ammunition, the new
-= GLL ' : Iraqi APCs, bunkers and older MBTs, the British two-piece ammunition (charge and round are two
_ _- _feWS mainly selected the HESH rounds, which seperate parts) can be fired. The modern fire control system
large fireball when they hit a target. supports the crew and combines all data from the thermal sight,
-­ _ _t
the laser range finder, weather data, the vehicle's position, etc.
~ \'. as a total of only 24 weakened Challenger The commander and gunner have independent sights.
- _ .l. hich were quickly changed by the CRARRVs
_ ~ .\ 5 . The British Challenger I MBT really displayed The Challenger 2's production line began in 1992. Under
-: and utility during the ground war in the Iraqi­ good conditions, its maximum cross-country speed is 64 km/h
(40 miles) with a range up to 450 km (280 miles). The
Challenger 2 even has an air-conditioning system for its four­
_ :.ument of the Challenger 2 Main Battle Tank man crew. With a combat weight of 64 tons, it is now the
:- ': ~\ Scots Dragoon Guards was the first armored heaviest tank in NATO's arsenal. The British Army will receive
-~~- - :he British Royal Armoured Corps to receive 38 a total of 386 Challenger 2 MBTs by the year 2002.
=_- .:. '\IBTs. On June 30, 1998, the first new tank was
~- -0 this unit in Bergen-Hohne, Germany. Challenger 2E
For export purposes, Vickers Defence Systems offers a
_-: ~iopment of Challenger 2 can be traced back to the Challenger 2 with a few modifications under the name "Desert
.:._ [otal of nine trial vehicles were built. Based on Challenger" or Challenger 2E (Export). The main improvement
- : ~equirements, a new tank was requested. It had to is the new power train with a 1,500hp-strong MTU 883
_ :e as far as armor, mobility, firepower, and fire turbocharged diesel fuel engine, an updated version of the well­
_ _--)logy, as well as easy to maintain. The tank also proven German Leopard 2 engine. A German RENK
. -=.-m ned by the best educated and most well-trained transmission completes the new power train. French
manufactured sights and an American fire control system are
other elements of the Challenger 2E.
~ :_) n. the British Army requested that the tank be
::, an up-to-date training and simulation system. The Middle Eastern country of Oman ordered a batch of 38
_ ::·eated simulation system, the Precision Gunnery Challenger 2Es. Other countries such as Greece, Quatar and
-= ::: ~'_:lpment (PGTE), is an effective base for an South Africa are also interested in this tank.
:::-.ining program focused on the needs of the crew.
-=­ , a computer-based interactive system with virtual The Royal Armoured Corps (RAe)
~lJltimedia elements. The British Royal Armoured Corps (RAC) was formed
more than 60 years ago by merging the Cavalry Regiments and
-; -,l e development of the Challenger 2, the British the Royal Tank Regiments. The units of the RAC made their
- e'j ;::Iosely with the people in the industry. In this contribution to the end of the Cold War by fighting in the Gulf
_...::~ of the Challenger 1 and the experiences of the War, keeping peace in Bosnia and Kosovo, and supporting civil
.~ .IId influence the design of the new MBT. The authority at home in Northern Ireland. The RAC, which
::~i- requirements focused on the following main provides the tank force to the British Army, is today composed
of eight Challenger I and 2 regiments (all Challenger 2s after
-=t-0wer
2002). Apart from the Royal Tank Regiment, which was formed
--: . .lbility
in WWI and gi ven the special task of fighting armored vehicles,
.:-::ty and cross'country capability
the regular element of the RAC is provided by the former
---=
d ing and operation
Cavalry Regiments. In 1998, the RAC ordered eight armored
::0·' under bad conditions
regiments with Challenger 1 and 2 MBTs - six based in
Germany and two in Great Britain. The names of the RAC
-=- -.ct Power Train of Challenger 2 Challenger 1 and 2 Armored Regiments are:
- -::::enger 1 hull was modified for the Challenger 2. A 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards (QDG)
__ .~J.[ic suspension, fully automatic gearbox, and a The Kings Royal Hussars (KRH)
?:::rkinson 12-cylinder diesel fuel engine give the The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Scots DG)
: _ -= :ugh mobility. The usual two 200-liter (53-gallon) The Royal Dragoon Guards (RDG)
~ ~ ::lounred on the rear of the hull increase the range of The Queen's Royal Hussars (QRH)
~ -: -111 additional 70 kIn (43 miles). Like the Challenger The Queen's Royal Lancers (QRL)
:: nger 2 is fitted with an integrated water heater for The 1st Royal Tank Regiment (1 RTR)
~e:l l s and water for tea. The 2nd Royal Tank Regiment (2 RTR)
5
The Road from the Chieftain to the Challenger 1
In 1966, the FV4201 Chieftain main battle tank replaced the Cen::-_
MBT in the RAC. The Chieftain was the first newly developed British
after WWII. The RAC military requirements for a new battle tank were <­
with good firepower and high firing ratio, a modern fire control system, t
armored protection, and a weight limit of 52 tons . This photo show,
transportation of Chieftain Mk.7 MBTs of 4th Armd . Bde., 3rd (UK) Armc.
using Antar Mk.3A tank transporters in the Einbeck Bowl , near Uslar,
Saxon ie, during Exercise "Red Claymore 81". (Eckhard Uhde)
?'
Change is the only thing that is constant. This axiom applies to both old
and modern military technology. Today both are history. The main goal of the
design of the Chieftain MBT was for the tank to survive combat against
Warsaw Pact tanks. Both the turret and hull were of single-piece cast
contruction. This Chieftain Mk.7 with Stillbrew armor is parked at the base of
a cliff below the venerable Marienburg castle on the Leine River near
Hannover during Exercise "Keystone 87". (Eckhard Uhde)
During the Arab-Israeli War of 1967 (Six-Day War) , troops lea­
through experience that heavy armor was an advantage against the . ~
Soviet wire-controlled anti-tank missiles. The biggest disadvantage was
Chieftain's low speed and poor agility. One main flaw was the unrel
730hp two-stroke Leyland L60 fuel oil engine, which was develc
especially for the Chieftain. During Exercise "Red Claymore 81", a Chie
Mk.7 takes control of an intersection (B-64) near the German tow­
Greene a.d. Leine. The tank belongs to the 4th Armd. Bde ., 3rd (UK) A
Div. (Eckhard Uhde)
Up to the mid-1980s, the Chieftain was the only tank in NATO's :
fleet with a 120mm main gun. Over the years more than 12 different vers :
of this tank were built. Most modifications concerned the engine, armor '"
fire control system. Every squadron was equipped with one Chieftain j-­
with a dozer blade. One of the last variants was irnproved with the
Stillbrew add-on armor on the turret front, such as that seen on this Chief;>'
Mk.12 that was photographed during Exercise "Golden Crown 88". (P 3"
Siebert)
6
:-
=~~ ')'s main gun was the
_11 gun with two-piece
~-0; rounds and cartridges
- ~ : =-"1s). The Challenger 1
- =-__-::" d with the same main
- _: -:'s)
: 3-:U'
~-i .' :
oc.-·
~-
-' J, :
=--: ' _c
The design of the
Chieftain's front armor and the
shape of its turret should help
to deflect hostile rounds. The
large smooth areas on the
turret and hull shows only a few
bullet holes. Here a Chieftain
Mk.3 is seen training for an
NBC attack in a town in Lower
Saxonie during Exercise
"Spearpoint 80". (BFG)
- _ -~'-3in's chassis is
- :-; that of its
: '1 8 Centurion.
z_-- chassis, which
-==-= -
eels and three
_ _ I,as fitted with
- _' side skirts. Here
,.·5 from 4th RTR
--=
=~·I passes a road
,:: --= spingen during
=
=-:' exercises in the
-_' . : 1eburg Area).
E '"rted with the
- -" ::- n sandwich
...:... ::...
he thermal
s:ght (TOGS)
2nd developed
.: -211enger by Barr
: :sr Bohm).
--------
.-...

Challenger 1 MeT of B1\OR (British 1\(my of the Rhine)
The British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) was under the command of the Northem Army Group (NORTHAG) in Germany. The BAOR had a structL
three armored divisions, one infantry division and corps troops. The 1s t (UK) Corps was equipped with more than 600 Chieftain and Challenger 1 MBTs
more than 3,000 other armored vehicles. The 1st and 4th Armoured Divisions were located and based in the defense line between the cities of Hanr~
(Lower Saxonie) and Kassel (Hessen), not far from the Iron Curtain. The 3rd Armd. Div. was in stand-by mode for the counterattack against the
Warsaw Pact units. In the event of war, the 2nd (UK) In!. Div. (based and located in England) would reinforce these troops. In this Cold War scenari
East German NVA (as a member of the Warsaw Pact) had the task of attacking the NATO troops in northern Germany and capturing the Nord-Ostsee
(channel between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea). To be prepared, every year in late autumn one of the British divisions held a division-scale FT~
German territory. One such exercise was Exercise "Eternal Triangle" held in 1986. Here two Challenger 1s from 3rd RTR, 3rd Armd. Div. attacks Dc..4
troops near Madfeld-Brilon. (Werner Mars)
These tanks were photographed during Exercise "Lionheart" in 1
In the RAC, The Royal Hussars Regiment was the first unit equipped in Shown here are a Challenger 1 Mk.1 of "B" Sqn., Royal Hussars and ar
1983 with the new Challenger 1 MBT. During the "Lionheart" maneuver in from 3-67th Armor from 1s t (US) Tiger Brigade, 2nd (US) Armd. Div. ­
September 1984, the Royal Hussars Challenger 1 saw its first action in a Challenger and the American M1 were developed in the same year. DlJ7
major exercise. The first Challengers had no Thermal Image Observation an Anglo-American information exchange program, the Chobham armc
and Gunners Sight system (TOGS). The crew members seen here wear old­ the Challenger was integrated into the construction of the American M1 ~.
style tank helmets. (Michael Neumann) the German Leopard 2 tank projects. (Michael Neumann)
8
=-
;;ular shape of the
_- = :l1 e significant difference
- : - ~':ain. The Challenger is of
.-: -'0: ' ction with flat armor
--~ =:-called Chobham armor
-~::: armor, a composite of
~:: 'als including metal and
- ""erial. The exact
: - ' 5 still secret. Here a
'" - Ji 17th/21 st Lancers is
_ - ; ::xercise Reforger 1987
::,,- . : -. (Michael Neumann)
Military Vehicles and Resarch
Establishment in England is the leader
in developing the new laminated armor
for the Challenger 1. The development
center is located near the town of
Chobham, which is how the new armor
got its name. The Horstmann chassis of
the Chieftain MBT was replaced by a
hydropneumatic suspension on the
Challenger 1. As a result, the
Challenger's cross-country agility was
improved. (Peter Siebert)
.L
An OPFOR Challenger 1 of the 17th/21 st Lancers during Exercise
"Certain Strike" near the city of Visselh6vede comes under a heavy flank
: -
~=- "Certain Strike" was one of the largest NORTHAG corps attack from Cobra attack helicopters of the US 6th Cavalry Brigade (Air
- '" deployment of 668 MBTs. There were also Challenger 1s Combat). The crew wears the new Racal Electronics armored vehicles
_ "" -=-­ ca rs, 4th Armd. Bde. in the field. Marked with red triangles crewman's helmet, which fits over a seperate headset assembly. These
::. -: :-I'et. they played the OPFOR role. (Fritz Tegtmeier) helmets were first delivered to the troops in the mid-1980s. (Fritz Tegtmeier)
9
Challenger 1 of 3rd Armd. Div. (Iron Division) at Exercise "Iron Hammer" In 1988
The BAOR's 3rd Armc.
Division is nicknamed the
Division". In 1988 this unit was E­
Challenger" division. The 4th, 6tr
20th Armoured Brigades make u:
division. The Earl of Wellj­
established the 3rd Division, E­
1815 the "3" fought against Napole-.
Waterloo. On June 6, 1944, sold,~
the "3" were the spearhead durir ~
fighting in Normandy. Here is a
looking down on a Challenger 1 :
3rd Armd. Div. during Exercise
Hammer 88". Note the No.15
commander's cupola with the ;,
sight and the anti-aircraft machine
(Michael Neumann)
I··
I
In NATO's structure, the BAOR's
3rd Armd. Div. was given the task of
leading the counterattack after a
Warsaw Pact offensive. During
Exercise "Iron Hammer 88" in
November 1988, the British troops
trained for this scenario near the
"Einbeck Bowl" in lower Saxonie. Here
a Challenger 1 troop, with three tanks,
awaits an attack by the Orange Force.
In the '80s the BAOR Challenger
regiments were organized in the Type
43 classification, with 43 Challenger 1
MBTs in each regiment. A Challenger
squadron has four troops, each with
three tanks. (Roger Lortie)
!
I
A hostile airmobile battalion
landed in the rear area of 3rd Armd.
Two companies of 1s t QUE.::
lancashire Regiment (QlR) an:
squadron of Challenger 1 r\~
destroyed the enemy in a comt ··
operation. The photo showE
Challenger 1, call sign "Zero Bravo·
Sqn, 17th/21 st lancers in the sr ·
covered Einbeck Bowl. (Eckhard U­
10