Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook

677 Pages·2009·12.81 MB·English

by  Kubiak

THE CERTIFIED SIX SIGMA
BLACKBELT HANDBOOK
SECOND EDITION
T. M. Kubiak
Donald W. Benbow
ASQ Quality Press
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
American Society for Quality, Quality Press, Milwaukee 53203
© 2009 by American Society for Quality
All rights reserved. Published 2009
Printed in the United States of America
14 13 12 11 10 09 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kubiak, T.M.
The certified six sigma black belt handbook / T.M. Kubiak and Donald W. Benbow.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-87389-732-7 (alk. paper)
1. Quality control—Statistical methods—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Benbow, Donald W.,
1936– II. Title.
TS156.B4653 2008
658.4’013--dc22
2008042611
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Publisher: William A. Tony
Acquisitions Editor: Matt Meinholz
Project Editor: Paul O’Mara
Production Administrator: Randall Benson
ASQ Mission: The American Society for Quality advances individual, organizational, and
community excellence worldwide through learning, quality improvement, and knowledge
exchange.
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Printed on acid-free paper
Preface to the Second Edition
In the spirit of c ustomer-s upplier relationships, we are pleased to provide our
readers with the second edition of The Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook.
The handbook has been updated to reflect the most recent Six Sigma Black Belt
Body of Knowledge, released in 2007.
As with all ASQ certification–based handbooks, the primary audience for this
work is the individual who plans to prepare to sit for the Six Sigma Black Belt
certification examination. Therefore, the book assumes the individual has the nec-
essary background and experience in quality and Six Sigma. Concepts are dealt
with briefly but facilitated with practical examples. We have intentionally avoided
theoretical discussion unless such a discussion was necessary to communicate a
concept. As always, readers are encouraged to use additional sources when seek-
ing much deeper levels of discussion. Most of the citations provided in the refer-
ences will be helpful in this regard.
A secondary audience for the handbook is the quality and Six Sigma profes-
sional who would like a relevant Six Sigma reference book. With this audience in
mind, we have greatly expanded the appendices section:
• Although the Body of Knowledge was updated in 2007, we have elected
to keep the 2001 Body of Knowledge so that readers can compare
changes and perhaps offer recommendations for future Bodies of
Knowledge.
• All tables were developed using a combination of Microsoft Excel
and Minitab 15. Thus, the reader may find some differences between
our tables and those published in other sources. Appendices 29–33
are examples of where such differences might occur. Note that years
ago many statistical tables were produced either by hand or by using
rudimentary calculators. These tables have been handed down from
author to author and have remained largely unchanged. Our approach
was to revert to the formulas and algorithms that produced the tables
and then redevelop them using statistical software.
• The table for control constants has been expanded to now include
virtually all control constants. To the best of our knowledge, this
handbook is probably the only reference source that includes this
information.
xxiii
xxiv Preface to the Second Edition
• Tables for both cumulative and noncumulative forms of the most useful
distributions are now present—for example, binomial, Poisson, and
normal.
• Additional alpha values in tables have been included. For example,
large alpha values for the left side of the F distribution now exist.
Thus, it will no longer be necessary to use the well- known conversion
property of the distribution to obtain critical F values associated with
higher alpha values. Though the conversion formula is straightforward,
everyone seems to get it wrong. We expect our readers will appreciate
this.
• The glossary has grown significantly. Most notable is the inclusion of
more terms relating to Lean.
• A second glossary has been added as well. This short glossary is limited
to the most common Japanese terms used by quality and Six Sigma
professionals.
We are confident that readers will find the above additions useful.
As you might expect, chapter and section numbering follows the same method
used in the Six Sigma Black Belt Body of Knowledge. This has made for some awk-
ward placement of discussions (for example, the normal distribution is referred to
several times before it is defined), and in some cases, redundancy of discussion
exists. However, where possible, we have tried to reference the main content in the
handbook and refer the reader there for the primary discussion.
After the first edition was published, we received several comments from read-
ers who stated that their answers did not completely agree with those given in the
examples. In many instances, we found that discrepancies could be attributed to
the following: use of computers with different bits, the number of significant dig-
its accounted for by the software used, the sequence in which the arithmetic was
performed, and the propagation of errors due to rounding or truncation. There-
fore, we urge the reader to carefully consider the above points as the examples are
worked. However, we do recognize that errors occasionally occur and thus have
established a SharePoint site that will permit readers to recommend suggestions,
additions, corrections, or deletions, as well as to seek out any corrections that may
have been found and published. The SharePoint site address is http://asqgroups.
asq.org/cssbbhandbook/.
Finally, the enclosed CD contains supplementary problems covering each
chapter and a simulated exam that has problems distributed among chapters
according to the scheme published in the Body of Knowledge. It is suggested that
the reader study a particular chapter, repeating any calculations independently,
and then do the supplementary problems for that chapter. After attaining success
with all chapters, the reader may complete the simulated exam to confirm mastery
of the entire Six Sigma Black Belt Body of Knowledge.
—The Authors
Table of Contents
List of Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Preface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
Part I Enterprise-Wide Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1 Enterprise-Wide View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
History of Continuous Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Value and Foundations of Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Value and Foundations of Lean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Integration of Lean and Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Business Processes and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Six Sigma and Lean Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 2 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Enterprise Leadership Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Organizational Roadblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Change Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Six Sigma Projects and Kaizen Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Six Sigma Roles and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Part II Organizational Process Management and Measures . . . . 21
Chapter 3 Impact on Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Impact on Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 4 Critical to x (CTx) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Critical to x (CTx) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 5 Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Chapter 6 Business Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Business Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
vii
viii Table of Contents
Chapter 7 Financial Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Common Financial Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Part III Team Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Chapter 8 Team Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Team Types and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Team Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Team Member Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Launching Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter 9 Team Facilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Team Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Team Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Team Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter 10 Team Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Team Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Chapter 11 Time Management for Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Time Management for Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Chapter 12 Team Decision- Making Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Team Decision- Making Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 13 Management and Planning Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Management and Planning Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter 14 Team Performance Evaluation and Reward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Team Performance Evaluation and Reward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Part IV Define . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Chapter 15 Voice of the Customer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Customer Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Customer Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Customer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Chapter 16 Project Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Problem Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Project Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Goals and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Project Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chapter 17 Project Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Project Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
T(cid:12)(cid:17)(cid:13)(cid:3) (cid:18)(cid:7) C(cid:18)(cid:16)(cid:5)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:5)(cid:19) ix
Part V Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Chapter 18 Process Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Input and Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Process Flow Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Process Analysis Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Chapter 19 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Types of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Measurement Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Sampling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Collecting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Chapter 20 Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Measurement Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Measurement Systems in the Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Metrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Chapter 21 Basic Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Basic Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Central Limit Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Graphical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Valid Statistical Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Chapter 22 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Commonly Used Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Other Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Chapter 23 Process Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Process Capability Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Process Performance Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Short- Term and Long- Term Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Process Capability for Non- Normal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Process Capability for Attributes Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Process Capability Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Process Performance vs. Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Part VI Analyze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 24 Measuring and Modeling Relationships between Variables . . . . 184
Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Multivariate Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Multi- Vari Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Attributes Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
x Table of Contents
Chapter 25 Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Statistical vs. Practical Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Sample Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Point and Interval Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Tests for Means, Variances, and Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Goodness- of-Fit (Chi Square) Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Contingency Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Non- Parametric Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Chapter 26 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Chapter 27 Additional Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Gap Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Root Cause Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Waste Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Part VII Improve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Chapter 28 Design of Experiments (DOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Planning Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
One- Factor Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Two-Level Fractional Factorial Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Full Factorial Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Chapter 29 Waste Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Waste Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Chapter 30 Cycle-Time Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Cycle- Time Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 31 Kaizen and Kaizen Blitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Kaizen and Kaizen Blitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Chapter 32 Theory of Constraints (TOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Theory of Constraints (TOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Chapter 33 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Chapter 34 Risk Analysis and Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Risk Analysis and Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
T(cid:12)(cid:17)(cid:13)(cid:3) (cid:18)(cid:7) C(cid:18)(cid:16)(cid:5)(cid:3)(cid:16)(cid:5)(cid:19) xi
Part VIII Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Chapter 35 Statistical Process Control (SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Selection of Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Rational Subgrouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Control Chart Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Control Chart Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Chapter 36 Other Control Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Visual Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Chapter 37 Maintain Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Measurement System Re- analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Control Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Chapter 38 Sustain Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Training Plan Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Ongoing Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Part IX Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) Frameworks and
Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Chapter 39 Common DFSS Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, and Validate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
DMADOV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Optimize, and Validate) . . . 415
Chapter 40 Design for X (DFX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Design for X (DFX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Chapter 41 Robust Design and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Robust Design and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Chapter 42 Special Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Strategic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Tactical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Part X Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Appendix 1 ASQ Code of Ethics (May 2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Appendix 2A ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Body
of Knowledge (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Appendix 2B ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Body
of Knowledge (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
xii Table of Contents
Appendix 3 Control Chart Combinations for Measurement Data . . . . . . . . . . 460
Appendix 4 Control Chart Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Appendix 5 Constants for A ,B , and B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
7 7 8
Appendix 6 Factors for Estimating σ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
X
Appendix 7 Control Charts Count Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Appendix 8 Binomial Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Appendix 9 Cumulative Binomial Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Appendix 10 Poisson Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Appendix 11 Cumulative Poisson Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Appendix 12 Standard Normal Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Appendix 13 Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Appendix 14 t Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Appendix 15 Chi-Square Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Appendix 16 F(0.99) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Appendix 17 F(0.975) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Appendix 18 F(0.95) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Appendix 19 F(0.90) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Appendix 20 F(0.10) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Appendix 21 F(0.05) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Appendix 22 F(0.025) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Appendix 23 F(0.01) Distribution Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Appendix 24 Median Ranks Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Appendix 25 Normal Scores Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Appendix 26 Factors for One-Sided Tolerance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Appendix 27 Factors for Two-Sided Tolerance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Appendix 28 Equivalent Sigma Levels, Percent Defective, and PPM . . . . . . . 554
Appendix 29 Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney Test Table (One-Tail,
Alpha = 0.05) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Appendix 30 Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney Test Table (One-Tail,
Alpha = 0.01) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557