Ceramics: Mechanical Properties, Failure Behaviour, Materials Selection

301 Pages·1999·14.688 MB·English

by  Prof. Dietrich Munz, Dr. Theo Fett (auth.), Prof. Dietrich Munz, Dr. Theo Fett (eds.)

Springer Series in Materials Science 36
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Dietrich Munz Theo Fett
Ceramics
Mechanical Properties, Failure Behaviour,
Materials Selection
With 216 Figures
, Springer
Prof. Dietrich Munz Dr. Theo Fett
Karlsruhe University Institute of Materials Research
Institute of Reliability and Failure Analysis Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe
Postfach 3640, D-7602 \ Karlsruhe, Germany Postfach 3640, D-76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
Series Editors:
Prof. Alex Zunger Prof. Robert HulI
NREL University of Virginia
National Renewable Energy Laboratory Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
1617 Cole Boulevard Thornton Hali
Golden Colorado 80401-3393, USA Charlottesville, VA 22903-2442, USA
Prof. R. M. Osgood, Jr. Prof. H. Sakaki
Microelectronics Science Laboratory Institute of Industrial Science
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Tokyo
Columbia University 7-22-1 Roppongi, Minato-ku
Seeley W. Mudd Building Tokyo 106, Japan
New York, NY 10027, USA
1s t Edition 1999
Corrected 2nd Printing 2001
ISSN 0933-033X
ISBN 978-3-642-63580-9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.
Munz. Dietrich.
Ceramics: mechanical properties. failure behaviour. malerials selection / Dietrich Munz; Theo Fett.
p.cm. --(Springer series in materials science; v. 36)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-642-63580-9 ISBN 978-3-642-58407-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-58407-7
1. Ceramic materials--Testing. 2. Ceramic materials--Mechanical properties. 1. Fett, Theo. II. Title. 1lI. Series.
TA455.C43M86 1999
620. I '4--dc2 I 99-I 0778 CIP
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1 Preface
Ceramic materials have many applications in technology. One often distinguishes
between traditional ceramics such as tableware, pottery, sanitary ware, tiles or
bricks and advanced ceramics, where depending on the specific application one or
several of the following properties are utilised: high strength at high temperatures,
wear resistance, corrosion resistance, low density, low thermal conductivity, low
electrical conductivity, favourable optical, electrical or magnetic properties,
biological compatibility.
In many cases physical properties are important (electronic ceramics, optical
ceramics, magnetic ceramics). In other cases, better mechanical properties as
compared to metals are essential for material selection. But also the materials used
because of their physical properties often have to be designed to resist failure due
to mechanical or thermal loading.
The major drawback of ceramics is the brittleness, i.e. failure without
preceding plastic deformation. Another disadvantage is the large scatter in
strength, which is caused by the brittleness and the scatter in the defect size. Both
properties have to be considered in the design of ce~'llllic components. In addition
to the well-known design criteria for metals, further specific aspects have to be
taken into account when selecting ceramic materials for a specific application and
designing ceramic components.
This book is based on a course held for several years at the University of
Karlsruhe. It was first published in German in 1989 and has now been extended to
include recent developments. It deals with the behaviour of ceramics under
mechanical loading. It also includes fracture mechanics, fracture statistics, the
description of failure behaviour from room temperature up to the creep range,
aspects of materials selection and design or, in other words, the methods of
applying results from laboratory tests to predict the behaviour of components.
Special attention is drawn to the failure under creep conditions caused by creep
crack growth. However, it does not cover the physical mechanisms of deformation
and fracture. Neither does it include the specific aspects of composite materials.
We would like to thank all members of the Institute of Reliability and Failure
Analysis of the University of Karlsruhe and the Institute of Materials Research of
the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, especially the doctoral students for many
interesting discussions on problems relating to ceramics.
Karlsruhe Dietrich Munz
December 1998 Theo Fett
1 Contents
1 Overview and Basic Properties 1
1.1 General Behaviour 1
1.2 Overview of Ceramic Materials 3
1.3 Fields of Application 5
2 Physical Properties 9
2.1 Thennal Expansion Coefficient 9
2.2 Thennal Conductivity 11
2.3 Electrical Conductivity 13
2.4 Specific Heat 14
2.5 Density 15
2.6 Elastic Constants 16
3 Fracture Mechanics 19
3.1 Fundamentals 19
3.1.1 Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics 19
3.1.2 Rising Crack Growth Resistance 23
3.2 Experimental Methods for the Determination
of the Mode-I Fracture Toughness K 25
IC
3.2.1 The Edge-Cracked Bending Bar 25
3.2.2 Specimens with Chevron Notches 28
3.2.3 Specimen with Knoop Indentation Crack 31
3.2.4 Vickers Indentation Cracks 34
3.2.5 Comparison of Different Specimen Types 37
3.3 Experimental Methods for the Determination of Mode-II
and Mixed-Mode Fracture Toughness 40
3.3.1 Bending Test with Bars Containing Oblique Notches 40
3.3.2 Three-Point Bending Test with an Eccentric Notch 41
3.3.3 The Asymmetric Four-Point Bending Test 41
3.3.4 Diametral Compression Test 42
3.3.5 Surface Flaws in Mixed-Mode Loading 44
3.4 Mixed-Mode Criteria and Experimental Results 45
4 R-Curve Behaviour 53
4.l Experimental Observation 53
4.1.1 Results for Different Materials 53
4.1.2 Effect of Geometry and Loading Conditions 55
4.1.3 Work -of-Fracture 56
4.1.4 Comparison of Macro- and Microcracks 56
VIII Contents
4.2 Determination of R-Curves 57
4.2.1 Specimens with Macrocracks 58
4.2.2 Specimens with Vickers Indentations 59
4.3 Reasons for R-Curve Behaviour 61
4.4 Influence of R-Curves on Strength 64
4.5 Computation of R-Curves 66
4.5.1 Fracture Mechanical Treatment of Bridging Stresses 66
4.5.2 Phase-Transformation Zone
and Shielding Stress Intensity Factor 69
4.6 Determination of Bridging Stresses from Crack Profiles 71
S Subcritical Crack Growth 77
5.1 Basic Relations 77
5.2 Computation of Lifetimes 78
5.2.1 Lifetimes Under Arbitrary Loading History 78
5.2.2 Lifetimes Under Static Load 79
5.2.3 Lifetimes Under Cyclic Load 80
5.3 Methods of Determining Subcritical Crack Growth 82
5.3.1 Double-Torsion Test 83
5.3.2 The Double-Cantilever-Beam Specimen 85
5.3.3 Crack Growth Data from Dynamic Bending Tests 87
5.3.4 Crack Growth Data from Static Bending Tests 89
5.3.5 Lifetime Prediction 94
5.4 Influence of R-Curve Behaviour on Subcritical Crack Growth 96
5.4.1 General Influence 96
5.4.2 Tests with Macroscopic Cracks 97
5.4.3 R-Curves for Subcritical Crack Extension 99
5.4.4 Lifetimes for Natural Cracks 100
5.5 Some Theoretical Considerations on Subcritical Crack Growth 103
6 Cyclic Fatigue 109
6.1 Representation of Cyclic Fatigue Results 109
6.2 Proof of a Cyclic Effect 110
6.3 Methods for the Determination of da/dN-llK Curves 113
6.4 Effect of R-Ratio 115
6.5 Theoretical Considerations 118
6.5.1 Effect of Crack Surface Interactions 118
6.5.2 Effect of Glass Phase Content 121
6.5.3 Effect of Phase Transformation Zones 122
6.6 Differences Between Micro-and Macrocracks 123
7 Determination of Strength 125
7.1 Measurement of Tensile Strength 125
7.1.1 The Tensile Test 125
7.1.2 The Bending Test 126
7.1.3 Test of Pipe Sections 129
Contents IX
7.2 Measurement of Compressive Strength 132
7.2.1 Compression Tests with Cylindrical Specimens 132
7.2.2 Compression Test on Hollow Cylinders 133
7.2.3 Results of Compression Tests 134
8 Scatter of Mechanical Properties 137
8.1 Principal Behaviour 137
8.2 Determination of Weibull Parameters 143
8.3 The Size Effect 145
8.4 Scatter of Lifetimes 148
8.5 Some Specific Problems 151
8.5.1 Three-Parameter Weibull Distribution 151
8.5.2 Multiple Flaw PopUlation 152
8.5.3 Influence of the R-Curve 154
9 Proof Test Procedure 159
9.1 Proof Test Without Subcritical Crack Growth 159
9.2 Proof Test Including Subcritical Crack Growth 161
9.3 Problems in Proof Tests 163
9.3.1 Subcritical Crack Growth During the Proof Test 163
9.3.2 Different Flaw Population at High Temperatures 164
9.3.3 Simulation of the Service Conditions 164
10 Multiaxial Failure Criteria 167
10.1 Representation in Multiaxiality Diagrams 167
10.2 Global Multiaxiality Criteria 169
10.3 Defect Models 171
10.3.1 Cy lindrical Pore 171
10.3.2 Spherical Pore 173
10.3.3 Ellipsoidal Pore 175
10.3.4 Circular Cracks 176
10.3.5 Conclusions from Defect Models 178
10.3.6 Statistical Treatment 181
10.3.7 Lifetime 188
10.4 Experimental Methods 189
10.4.1 The Ring-on-Ring Test 189
10.4.2 Ball-on-Ring Test 191
10.4.3 Brazilian-Disk Test 193
10.4.4 Tests with Tubes 195
10.4.5 Triaxial Stress States 196
10.5 Experimental Results 196
11 Thermal Shock Behaviour
203
11.1 Thermal Stresses 203
11.2 Measurement of Thermal Shock Sensitivity 211
11.3 Fracture Mechanical Treatment of Thermal Shock 213
X Contents
11.4 Thermal Shock Parameters 217
11.5 Size Effect in Thermal Shock 219
11.6 Thermal Fatigue 222
12 High-Temperature Behaviour 227
12.1 Creep Deformation 227
12.1.1 Creep Relations for Tensile Tests 229
12.1.2 Differences in Tensile and Compression Creep 233
12.1.3 Creep Under Variable Stresses 234
12.1.4 Creep Under Bending Load 236
12.2 Failure in the Creep Range 249
12.2.1 Creep Fracture 250
12.2.2 Failure Maps '251
12.3 Creep Crack Growth 254
12.3.1 The C* Integral 254
12.3.2 Experimental Determination of C* 256
13 Plasticity 265
13.1 Plasticity During Contact Loading 265
13.2 Plasticity During Surface Grinding 268
13.3 Plasticity by Phase Transformation in Zirconia 269
13.4 Plasticity by Domain Switching
in Piezoelectric Ceramics 271
13.5 Measurement of Plastic Deformations in Bending Tests 273
13.6 Time-Dependent Plasticity Effects 275
Appendix A. Stress Intensity Factors and Weight Functions
for Test Specimens 279
A.l Rectangular Bar 279
A.2 Comact-Tension (CT) Specimen 280
A.3 Round Compact Tension (RCT) Specimen 281
A.4 Double-Cantilever-Beam Specimen (DeB) 282
A.5 Weight Function for Chevron-Notched Bending Bars 283
A.6 Specimens for Mixed-Mode Tests 285
Appendix B. h-Parameters for Creep Crack Growth 290
SUbject Index 293
1 Overview and Basic Properties
Ceramics have some attractive properties compared to metals and polymers,
which make them useful for specific applications. Their physical properties have
been utilized for many applications. In other applications their mechanical proper
ties are important. The main drawbacks of ceramics are their brittleness and the
large scatter in the mechanical properties. In this introductory section a short
overview of the most important ceramics and of their basic properties is given.
1.1 General Behaviour
The most important advantageous features of ceramic materials are:
• low electrical conductivity,
• low thermal conductivity,
• low density,
• high strength at high temperatures,
• wear resistance,
• corrosion resistance,
• specific physical properties (optical, electrical, magnetic).
These properties lead to applications in many technical areas. Some examples will
be mentioned below.
The low electrical conductivity leads to applications in insulating techniques.
Spark plugs are the best-known applications in engine manufacturing. The low
thermal conductivity is used, for instance, for the protection tiles of the Space
Shuttle and in the form of insulation layers in combustion chambers.
The resistance against corrosion leads to applications as heat exchangers for
corrosive agents. In biomechanics (hip joints, dentures) the compatibility of cera
mics with human bodies is of high importance.
The excellent wear resistance is exploited for cutting tools, as roller bearings or
in the textile industry (thread guidance, yarn-guiding grooves).
The high temperature strength is used in nuclear fusion technology applica
tions, in the development of gas turbines and in the field of solar energy.
The main disadvantages of ceramics are
• low tensile strength at room temperature for some materials,
• brittleness,
• large scatter of strengths,
D. Munz et al. (eds.), Ceramics
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1999