Caves and Ritual in Medieval Europe, AD 500–1500

323 Pages·2018·26.786 MB·English

by  Knut Andreas Bergsvik, Marion Dowd

CAVES AND RITUAL
IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE,
AD 500–1500
Edited by
Knut Andreas Bergsvik and Marion Dowd
Oxford & Philadelphia
Published in the United Kingdom in 2018 by
OXBOW BOOKS
The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JE
and in the United States by
OXBOW BOOKS
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© Oxbow Books and the individual contributors 2018
Hardback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-832-9
Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-833-6 (epub)
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Front cover, top: Predjama cave and castle, Slovenia (photo: S. Sykora); bottom: a Sámi grave in a cave on the island of Spildra, Norway
(photo: A. Svestad).
Back cover: Bracken’s Cave on the coast of Rathlin Island, Co. Antrim, Ireland (photo: A. McInroy).
Contents
Preface ......................................................................................................................................................................................v
List of contributors ...............................................................................................................................................................vii
Chapter 1: Caves and rockshelters in medieval Europe: religious and secular use
Knut Andreas Bergsvik and Marion Dowd .......................................................................................................1
PART I: NORTHWESTERN EUROPE
Chapter 2: Entering other realms: Sámi burials in natural rock cavities and caves in northern
Fenno-Scandinavia between 900 BC and AD 1700
Asgeir Svestad .................................................................................................................................................13
Chapter 3: The perception and use of caves and rockshelters in Late Iron Age and medieval western Norway
c. AD 550–1550
Knut Andreas Bergsvik ....................................................................................................................................32
Chapter 4: A holy cave and womb: the sanctuary on the island of Selja and the birth
of the fi rst Norwegian saints
Alf Tore Hommedal .........................................................................................................................................63
Chapter 5: Signs from the Pictish underground: early medieval cave ritual at the Sculptor’s Cave,
north-east Scotland
Lindsey Büster and Ian Armit .........................................................................................................................85
Chapter 6: Marking caves in Scotland and Iceland: characterising an early medieval phenomenon
Kristján Ahronson ...........................................................................................................................................97
Chapter 7: Saintly associations with caves in Ireland from the early medieval period (AD 400–1169)
through to recent times
Marion Dowd ................................................................................................................................................116
PART II: IBERIA AND THE MEDITERRANEAN
Chapter 8: Hidden in the depths, far from people: Funerary activities in the Lower Gallery of La Garma
and the use of natural caves as burial places in early medieval Cantabria, northern Spain
Pablo Arias, Roberto Ontañón, Enrique Gutiérrez Cuenca, José Ángel Hierro Gárate,
Francisco Etxeberria, Lourdes Herrasti and Paloma Uzquiano .................................................................133
iv Contents
Chapter 9: Christian and Muslim patterns of secular and religious cave use in the Iberian Peninsula
in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (fi fth/sixth to eleventh/twelfth centuries AD)
Manel Feijoó .................................................................................................................................................152
Chapter 10: The occupation and use of natural caves in the Ligurian-Piedmontese region between
Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (fi fth to late seventh century AD)
Paolo de Vingo ..............................................................................................................................................165
Chapter 11: The culture of rock-cut cemeteries and artifi cial ritual caves in Roman and Byzantine Malta
Mario Buhagiar .............................................................................................................................................185
Chapter 12: Investigating cave dwelling in medieval Malta (AD 800–1530)
Keith Buhagiar ..............................................................................................................................................201
PART III: CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE
Chapter 13: The use of caves for religious purposes in early medieval Germany (AD 500–1200)
Mechthild Schulze-Dörrlamm .......................................................................................................................219
Chapter 14: Knights in the dark: on the function of Polish caves in the Middle Ages
Michał Wojenka .............................................................................................................................................232
Chapter 15: Medieval cave sites in the Czech Republic
Vladimír Peša ................................................................................................................................................247
Chapter 16: Bull Rock Cave (Býčí skála), Czech Republic, and its environs in the Middle Ages
Martin Golec .................................................................................................................................................261
Chapter 17: The form and fabric of Late Antique and medieval cave use in Slovenia
Agni Prijatelj .................................................................................................................................................275
Chapter 18: The triconchial medieval cave churches of Eski-Kermen (Crimea): recent results of investigations
Nicolas V. Dneprovsky ...................................................................................................................................298
Preface
It is no small irony that this book has been edited by two deal with legacy data from antiquarian cave investigations?
prehistorians. In the course of our separate researches into What is the relationship between medieval cave archaeology
the prehistoric archaeology of caves and rockshelters in and how these places are referred to in medieval texts?
Norway and Ireland respectively, we became aware that How can early literary sources be better integrated with
these natural landscape features contained rich medieval the archaeological data? How should folkloristic accounts
assemblages that represented a wide range of human of caves be used, if at all? Can placenames be useful in
activities. This data, with few exceptions, had been almost understanding medieval cave archaeology?
entirely neglected by medieval historians and archaeologists. The discussion that emerged from the 2013 EAA session
We soon discovered that the situation was typical of most in Pilsen resulted in a decision to bring together a unique
other countries in Europe. This realisation became the publication on medieval uses and perceptions of caves and
impetus for a session at the 19th Annual Meeting of the rockshelters. The religious and ritual role of caves triggered
European Association of Archaeologists (EAA) in Pilsen, the greatest interest at the conference and therefore we
in the Czech Republic, in September 2013 titled, ‘The use decided to hone in on this topic in the current volume. This
and perception of caves and rockshelters in early medieval aspect of cave usage cannot be clearly identifi ed in all parts
Europe (AD 400–1200)’. of Europe, however, and thus some of the papers contained
As we had hoped, the session attracted much interest herein deal with the evidence for secular rather than ritual
and enthusiasm. A wide range of questions were raised that activities. We have attempted to include studies from
refl ected the poorly understood role of caves in medieval disparate regions across Europe by inviting contributors who
Europe up to that point. For instance, how were caves and were not part of the original conference, thus the studies
rockshelters used and perceived by people during these range geographically from Norway to Malta, and from
centuries? Did they serve different functions across different Ireland to Crimea. The start and end dates of the medieval
parts of Europe? Were there differences between how local period, or Middle Ages, across this vast region vary widely
populations versus immigrants engaged with caves? To what and thus we adopted a date range of AD 500–1500 as the
extent did local geology infl uence usage? Were artifi cial most inclusive chronological framework. Together, these
rock-cut caverns used in similar ways to natural caves, and papers establish the deeply embedded ritual signifi cance
did deep caves function differently to rockshelters? What of caves and rockshelters in medieval Europe, sometimes
can be said of those who utilised caves in terms of social central to religious landscapes and ritual practices, and at
status, ethnicity, or gender? Was there a correlation between other times on the periphery. This book also touches upon
cave morphology or location and specifi c ritual or secular a wide variety of themes, and we believe Caves and Ritual
activities? Were there differences between Christian and in Medieval Europe, AD 500–1500 will be of interest
Muslim cave use? How did the conversion to Christianity and relevance to medieval archaeologists and historians,
affect caves that were ritually signifi cant in earlier pagan specialists in medieval religious history, as well as to cave
times? Were caves still used for burial after the conversion archaeologists.
to Christianity? How did popular religious practises in We would like to warmly thank all 22 authors for their
caves differ from formal offi cial Christian activities? How willingness to contribute to this volume and for many
did cave churches relate to wider Christian landscapes? insightful discussions on the topic of cave use in medieval
What emotions did caves evoke? Methodological questions Europe. The scientific committee of the EAA Annual
were also raised: How can we distinguish, archeologically, Meeting in Pilsen is to be thanked for including our session
between ritual and secular functions of caves? How do we at the conference. We are most grateful to the Department of
vi Preface
Archaeology, History, Cultural Studies and Religion, and the and Per Viggo Bergsvik who helped with the images. At
University Museum, at the University of Bergen (Norway); Oxbow we are grateful to Julie Gardiner and Katie Allen
and to CERIS and the School of Science at the Institute for their help and advice throughout the publication process.
of Technology Sligo (Ireland), for generously providing
funding towards publication costs. Our sincere thanks are Knut Andreas Bergsvik and Marion Dowd
due to Dr. Rory Sherlock for copy-editing the manuscript Bergen and Sligo, August 2017
List of contributors
Kristján Ahronsson Mario Buhagiar
Department of History and Archaeology Department of History of Art
Bangor University Faculty of Arts
Bangor, Gwynedd University of Malta
LL57 2DG Msida
Wales Malta
[email protected] [email protected]
Pablo Arias Lindsey Büster
Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Prehistóricas School of Archaeological and Forensic Sciences
de Cantabria (Universidad de Cantabria-Gobierno de University of Bradford
Cantabria-Banco Santander) University of Bradford
Universidad de Cantabria BD7 1DP
Av. de los Castros, 52 United Kingdom
39005 Santander [email protected]
Spain
[email protected] Enrique Gutiérrez Cuenca
Proyecto Mauranus
Ian Armit Eulogio Fernández Barros, 7-3º A
School of Archaeological and Forensic Sciences 39600 Maliaño
University of Bradford Spain
BD7 1DP [email protected]
United Kingdom
[email protected] Paolo de Vingo
Università di Torino
Knut Andreas Bergsvik Dipartimento di Studi Storici
University Museum Palazzo Venturi
University of Bergen via G. Verdi 25
Haakon Sheteligs plass 10 10124 Torino
5007 Bergen Italy
Norway [email protected]
[email protected]
Nicolas Dneprovsky
Keith Buhagiar Izdatel’stvo ‘Nevskaya Lavra’
Department of Classics and Archaeology Alexandro-Nevskaya Lavra
Faculty of Arts Naberezhnaya reki Monastyrki, 1
University of Malta 191167 St. Petersburg
Msida Russian Federation
Malta [email protected]
[email protected]
viii List of contributors
Marion Dowd Museo de Prehistoria y Arqueología y Cuevas
Centre for Environmental Research Innovation Prehistóricas de Cantabria
and Sustainability (CERIS) Ruiz de Alda, 19
School of Science 39009 Santander
Institute of Technology Sligo, Sligo Spain
Ireland [email protected]
[email protected]
Vladimír Peša
Francisco Etxeberria Regional museum and gallery at Česká Lípa
Facultad de Medicina Department of Archaeology
Universidad del País Vasco Náměstí Osvobození 297
2014 San Sebastián 470 34 Česká Lípa
Spain Czech Republic
[email protected] [email protected]
[email protected]
Manel Feijoó
Arqueología-Ciencias de la Antigüedad Agni Prijatelj
Universidad de Zaragoza Durham University
Pedro Cerbuna 12 Department of Archaeology
50009 Zaragoza South Road
Spain Durham
[email protected] DH1 3LE
United Kingdom
José Ángel Hierro Gárate [email protected]
Proyecto Mauranus/SCOPE
Grupo Tetuán-Las Canteras 1, 1º B Mechthild Schulze-Dörrlamm
39004 Santander, Spain Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum
[email protected] Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie
Ernst-Ludwig-Pl. 2
Martin Golec 55116 Mainz
Department of History Germany
Faculty of Arts [email protected]
Palacký University
tř. Svobody 8 Asgeir Svestad
Olomouc, 779 00 Department of Archaeology, History, Religious Studies
Czech Republic and Theology
[email protected] UiT The Arctic University of Norway
P.O. Box 6050 Langnes
Lourdes Herrasti 9037 Tromsø
Sociedad de Ciencias Aranzadi Norway
Alto de Zorroaga s/n [email protected]
20014 San Sebastián
Spain Paloma Uzquiano
[email protected] UNED
C/Mediodía Grande 17
Alf Tore Hommedal 28005 Madrid
University Museum Spain
University of Bergen [email protected]
Haakon Sheteligs plass 10
5007 Bergen Michał Wojenka
Norway Institute of Archaeology
[email protected] Jagiellonian University
Ul. Gołębia 11
Roberto Ontañón 31-007 Kraków
Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Prehistóricas de Poland
Cantabria [email protected]
Chapter 1
Caves and rockshelters in medieval Europe:
religious and secular use
Knut Andreas Bergsvik and Marion Dowd
Caves have fascinated humans from the earliest times. from across Europe demonstrate a remarkable variation
Though natural geological features, caves can feel in terms of how caves and rockshelters were used in all
supernatural, unpredictable, animated, dangerous but also archaeological periods, from the Palaeolithic through to
inviting. From the birth of the discipline of archaeology in the recent centuries. The evidence can vary from sites utilised
mid-1800s, caves have attracted the attention of antiquarians briefl y during hunting and fi shing expeditions, to caves
and archaeologists. Traditionally, caves were targeted in that were greatly modifi ed and intensively used for ritual
the search for Palaeolithic deposits, not least because the activities – and in both instances examples can be found
stable underground environment favours the preservation from every archaeological period. Such diversity is also
and survival of organic material. The most important early found during the Middle Ages in Europe.
hominid and Palaeolithic fi nds from around the world, for Of all archaeological periods, it could be argued that
instance, have come from caves and the subterranean world the medieval usage of caves has been the most overlooked.
continues to produce the most scientifi cally ground-breaking There are at least two reasons that can partially explain
archaeological discoveries (e.g. the Sterkfontein and Rising this neglect. Firstly, stratigraphically, the upper layers
Star caves of the so-called Cradle of Humankind in South in cave sediments are more vulnerable to natural or
Africa). Not surprisingly, therefore, cave archaeology has cultural formation processes, disturbance and destruction
become synonymous with the Palaeolithic. Caves and than deeper, older strata. Frequently antiquarians and
rockshelters, however, are multi-period sites but because of archaeologists were to blame for the removal, destruction
their long use-histories, many Palaeolithic cave excavations and/or disposal of medieval cultural layers without any
involved digging through (and frequently discarding) deep analysis, as de Vingo notes for Italy and southern France
cultural layers from later prehistoric and historic periods. (chapter 10). The situation in Poland and the Czech Republic
When archaeological material of later date was retrieved is similar where publications on Palaeolithic material might
from early excavations, it was usually a by-product of refer to the discovery of medieval artefacts in caves, but
Palaeolithic research. these never made their way into museum collections; at
Things have started to change in recent years and some Polish sites, organic material from upper historic strata
younger stratigraphy from caves has begun to attract was even used for the production of guano (see Wojenka,
greater attention. The number of archaeological excavations chapter 14; Peša, chapter 15; and Golec, chapter 16). Prijatelj
focussed on later periods of cave activities is increasing, as reports that the medieval use of caves has been almost
is the publication of such assemblages and sites (e.g. Dowd totally overlooked in Slovenian scholarship (chapter 17),
2015, and contributions in edited volumes such as Branigan and Hommedal discusses the consequences of the less
and Dearne 1992; Tolan-Smith and Bonsall 1997; Kornfeld than ideal excavations of the Selja caves that took place
et al. 2007; Bergsvik and Skeates 2012; Moyes 2012; in the mid-1800s (chapter 4). There are also problems
Mavridis and Jensen 2013; Dowd 2016). Overall, studies with artificial rock-cut ‘caves’. As Schulze-Dörrlamm