Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?

322 Pages·2011·1.79 MB·English

by  Richard Bourne

Catastrophe
About the Author
Richard Bourne is Senior Research Fellow at the Institute
of Commonwealth Studies, London University, and a former
journalist. In 1998 he founded the Commonwealth Policy Studies
Unit; before that, in 1990, was the first director of the non-
governmental Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative. He has
written and edited ten books and numerous reports, including a
biography of President Lula of Brazil (2008) and a collection of
essays in honour of the eightieth birthday of Shridath Ramphal
(2008). As a journalist he was education correspondent of the
Guardian and deputy editor of the London Evening Standard.
Catastrophe
What Went Wrong
Zimba bWe?
in
richArd bourne
Zed Books
london | new york
For Panashe, Tadiwanashe and Summer,
and the next generation of Zimbabweans, who will have
many questions for their elders
Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? was first published
in 2011 by Zed Books Ltd, 7 Cynthia Street, London n1 9jf, uk
and Room 400, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, ny 10010, usa
www.zedbooks.co.uk
Copyright © Richard Bourne 2011
The right of Richard Bourne to be identified as the author
of this work has been asserted by him in accordance
with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988
Designed and typeset in Monotype Bulmer by illuminati, Grosmont
Index by John Barker
Cover designed by Rogue Four Design
Distributed in the USA exclusively by Palgrave Macmillan, a division
of St Martin’s Press, llc, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, ny 10010, usa
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data available
isbn 978 184813 522 2 eb
contents
glossary vi
timeline ix
preface xv
prologue Two birthdays 1
one Conquest 4
two White supremacy and the settler state 24
three From UDI to Lancaster House 59
four ZANU in power: the 1980s 97
five When the wheels began to fall off:
the 1990s 126
six Disaster years and the Third Chimurenga 160
seven From Operation Murambatsvina
to an inclusive government 194
eight How did it go wrong? 236
notes 269
bibliography 288
index 291
GlossAry
African National Congress Principal liberation movement in South
Africa, in government from 1994.
ANC African National Council, body headed by Bishop Abel Muzorewa
which became the United African National Council.
British South Africa Company Company formed by Cecil Rhodes,
responsible for colonisation of Rhodesia.
CFU Commercial Farmers Union in Zimbabwe.
CIO Central Intelligence Organisation, Rhodesian intelligence agency,
then indigenised as security service for ZANU–PF government after
independence.
Commonwealth International association supporting Lancaster House
negotiations, 1979, oversight of elections leading to majority rule, 1980.
Dabengwa, Dumiso Born 1939, head of ZIPRA intelligence in civil war,
charged with treason in 1982, minister of home affairs, 1992–2000, helps
revive ZAPU after 2008 elections.
Detente Period of negotiation, 1974–5, promoted by Presidents Vorster of
South Africa and Kaunda of Zambia, and US Secretary of State Kissinger.
DFID Department for International Development, set up by Blair’s Labour
government in 1997 to replace the Overseas Development Administration
within the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
Dissidents Armed opponents of ZANU government in 1980s.
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States.
Federation The Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation, also known as the
Central African Federation, 1953–64.
FRELIMO Frente para o Libertação do Mocambique, liberation movement
which formed Mozambique government after independence in 1975.
FROLIZI Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe, short-lived 1970s grouping.
vii
GlossAry
Gukhurahundi Repression spearheaded by Fifth Brigade in Matabeleland,
in 1980s.
Huggins, Godfrey (1883–1971) Prime minister of Southern Rhodesia and
then Federation for twenty-three years, created Viscount Malvern.
IMF International Monetary Fund.
Lancaster House London location for 1979 talks leading to end of civil war and
majority rule in Zimbabwe, giving its name to independence constitution.
Makoni, Simba Born 1951, formerly SADC secretary general and minister of
finance, and independent presidential candidate 2008.
MDC Movement for Democratic Change, opposition party formed in 1999.
MDC–M Smaller MDC faction, following 2006 split, led first by Arthur
Mutambara, then by Welshman Ncube.
MDC–T Larger MDC faction, following 2006 split, led by Morgan
Tsvangirai.
MK Umkohonto we Size, literally ‘Spear of the Nation’, the armed wing of
the ANC during the liberation struggle.
MNR/RENAMO Armed insurgents against FRELIMO government, which
became an opposition Mozambican political party as RENAMO after end
of civil war, 1992.
Mugabe, Robert Born 1924; leader of ZANU and ZANU–PF; imprisoned
1964–74, prime minister of Zimbabwe, 1980–87, executive president from
1987.
Mutambara, Arthur Born 1966; leader of smaller faction of MDC known as
MDC–M until ousted in 2011, deputy prime minister in inclusive government
formed in 2009.
Muzorewa, Abel (1925–2010) Methodist bishop who coordinated opposition
to provisional agreement between British and Ian Smith in 1971, then was
prime minister of ‘Zimbabwe-Rhodesia’ as result of internal settlement with
Smith in 1979.
National Constitutional Assembly Coalition of civil society, union and
church bodies which campaigned for a new constitution and a No vote in
2000 referendum.
Ncube, Welshman Born 1961; one of founders of MDC; elected leader of
Mutambara faction in 2011; minister of industry and commerce in unity
government.
NDP National Democratic Party: African nationalist party which succeeded
the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress; banned in 1962.
Nkomo, Joshua (1917–1999) Trade unionist who successively led Southern
Rhodesian ANC, NDP and ZAPU; home affairs minister 1980–82, then
vice president 1987–99.
OAU Organisation of African Unity, superseded by African Union.
Operation Murambatsvina Government-promoted clearance of informal
urban dwellers in 2005, leading to displacements and human rights abuse
criticised in a UN report.
viii
cAtAstrophe
Rhodes, Cecil (1853–1962) Businessman and prime minister of Cape Colony,
responsible for white colonisation of Southern and Northern Rhodesia.
Rhodesian Front Rhodesian settler party which won 1962 election, led
successively by Winston Field and Ian Smith, responsible for UDI.
SADC Southern African Development Community.
Sithole, Ndabaningi (1920–2000) Formed ZANU with Robert Mugabe and
others; imprisoned 1964–74; overthrown as ZANU leader and joined Bishop
Muzorewa in ‘internal settlement’ in 1979.
Smith, Ian (1919–2007) Prime minister of Rhodesia, 1964–79.
Soames, Christopher (Lord) (1920–1987) Last governor of Rhodesia, who
oversaw transition to majority rule in Zimbabwe in 1980.
Southern Rhodesian African National Congress Early nationalist
movement, led by Joshua Nkomo before it was banned.
Todd, Garfield (1908–2002) Prime minister of Southern Rhodesia, 1953–58.
Tongogara, Josiah (1938–1979) ZANLA commander, popular with his
troops, who died just after Lancaster House agreement.
Tsvangirai, Morgan Born 1952; secretary general of Zimbabwe Confedera-
tion of Trade Unions, 1987–99; then founder of MDC and leader of larger
faction (MDC–T) after 2006 split; prime minister of Zimbabwe in inclusive
government from 2009.
UANC United African National Council, body led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa
which coordinated 1971 opposition to deal between Ian Smith and British,
then partnered Smith in ‘Zimbabwe-Rhodesia’ in 1979.
UDI Unilateral Declaration of Independence by Smith government in 1965.
UNDP United Nations Development Programme.
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund.
Welensky, Roy Northern Rhodesian politician, prime minister of Federation
of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 1957–64.
WFP World Food Programme.
ZANLA Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, guerrilla army linked
to ZANU.
ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union, political party initially led by
Ndabaningi Sithole, then Robert Mugabe.
ZANU–PF ZANU–Patriotic Front, title of ZANU-led party after 1987 Unity
Accord in which it merged with ZAPU.
ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union, political party from which ZANU
broke away, led by Joshua Nkomo.
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum Umbrella group of Zimbabwean
human rights and women’s groups.
ZIPA Zimbabwe People’s Army, short-lived alliance of ZANLA and
ZIPRA.
ZIPRA Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army, guerrilla army linked to
ZAPU.
ZUM Zimbabwe Unity Movement.
timeline
1870 Lobengula establishes himself as ruler of the Ndebele, with suze-
rainty over much of today’s Zimbabwe.
1887 Cecil Rhodes registers the Consolidated Gold Fields of South Africa
Ltd in London.
1888 Lobengula awards Rhodes’s company rights to metals and minerals
in his kingdom, the so-called Rudd Concession.
1889 Rhodes gains a royal charter for the British South Africa Company,
with wide powers, to which the Rudd Concession is transferred.
1890 A pioneer column, organised by the British South Africa Company,
occupies Mashonaland and the Union Jack is hoisted at Fort
Salisbury.
1893 The Ndebele are conquered and Lobengula dies.
1895 The British Post Office recognises ‘Rhodesia’; the Jameson Raid
fails, and Boers arrest the raiders.
1896 Ndebele rebellion, followed by a Shona uprising also; Rhodes makes
peace with the Ndebele but the Shona are not crushed until the
following year.
1899–1902 Anglo-Boer War. Rhodes dies in 1902.
1903 Rhodesia’s legislative council approves the Immorality Suppression
Ordinance, making extramarital sex between a black man and a
white woman illegal.
1907 Settlers get an elected majority in Southern Rhodesia’s legislative
council.
1910 Creation of the Union of South Africa, with the possibility of Rho-
desia joining as a fifth province; all Africans in Southern Rhodesia
must carry a registration certificate.
1912 Foundation of Southern Rhodesian African National Congress.