cassini imaging science: instrument characteristics and anticipated

136 Pages·2004·3.87 MB·English

CASSINIIMAGINGSCIENCE:INSTRUMENTCHARACTERISTICS
ANDANTICIPATEDSCIENTIFICINVESTIGATIONSATSATURN
CAROLYNC.PORCO1,∗,ROBERTA.WEST2,STEVENSQUYRES3,ALFRED
McEWEN4,PETERTHOMAS3,CARLD.MURRAY5,ANTHONYDELGENIO6,
ANDREWP.INGERSOLL7,TORRENCEV.JOHNSON2,GERHARDNEUKUM8,
JOSEPHVEVERKA3,LUKEDONES9,ANDREBRAHIC10,JOSEPHA.BURNS3,
VANCEHAEMMERLE2,BENJAMINKNOWLES1,DOUGLASDAWSON4,
THOMASROATSCH11,KEVINBEURLE5andWILLIAMOWEN2
1CICLOPS/SpaceScienceInstitute,Boulder,CO,U.S.A.
2JetPropulsionLaboratory,Pasadena,CA,U.S.A.
3CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NewYork,U.S.A.
4UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ,U.S.A.
5QueenMary,UniversityofLondon,London,England
6NASAGoddardInstituteforSpaceStudies,NewYork,NewYork,U.S.A.
7CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,Pasadena,CA,U.S.A.
8FreieUniversität,Berlin,Germany
9SouthwestResearchInstitute,Boulder,CO,U.S.A.
10UniversitéParis7-DenisDiderot,Paris,France
11DLR,Berlin,Germany
∗
( Authorforcorrespondence:E-mail:[email protected])
(Received8January2004;Acceptedinfinalform18May2004)
Abstract. TheCassiniImagingScienceSubsystem(ISS)isthehighest-resolutiontwo-dimensional
imaging device on the Cassini Orbiter and has been designed for investigations of the bodies and
phenomenafoundwithintheSaturnianplanetarysystem.Itconsistsoftwoframingcameras:anarrow
◦
angle,reflectingtelescopewitha2-mfocallengthandasquarefieldofview(FOV)0.35 across,and
◦
awide-anglerefractorwitha0.2-mfocallengthandaFOV3.5 across.Attheheartofeachcamerais
achargedcoupleddevice(CCD)detectorconsistingofa1024squarearrayofpixels,each12µona
side.Thedatasystemallowsmanyoptionsfordatacollection,includingchoicesforon-chipsumming,
rapidimaginganddatacompression.Eachcameraisoutfittedwithalargenumberofspectralfilters
which,takentogether,spantheelectromagneticspectrumfrom200to1100nm.Thesewerechosen
toaddressamultitudeofSaturn-systemscientificobjectives:soundingthethree-dimensionalcloud
structureandmeteorologyoftheSaturnandTitanatmospheres,capturinglightningonbothbodies,
imagingthesurfacesofSaturn’smanyicysatellites,determiningthestructureofitsenormousring
system,searchingforpreviouslyundiscoveredSaturnianmoons(withinandexteriortotherings),
peeringthroughthehazyTitanatmospheretoitsyet-unexploredsurface,andingeneralsearching
fortemporalvariabilitythroughoutthesystemonavarietyoftimescales.TheISSisalsotheoptical
navigationinstrumentfortheCassinimission.Wedescribeherethecapabilitiesandcharacteristicsof
theCassiniISS,determinedfrombothgroundcalibrationdataandin-flightdatatakenduringcruise,
andtheSaturn-systeminvestigationsthatwillbeconductedwithit.Atthetimeofwriting,Cassiniis
approachingSaturnandtheimagesreturnedtoEarththusfararebothbreathtakingandpromising.
Keywords: Cassini,Saturn,Imaging,Rings,Moons
SpaceScienceReviews 115:363–497,2004.
(cid:3)C 2004KluwerAcademicPublishers. PrintedintheNetherlands.
364 C.C.PORCOETAL.
1. Introduction
On October 15, 1997, the Cassini spacecraft was launched to the planet Saturn
from Cape Canaveral Launch Pad 40. When it reaches and begins orbiting Sat-
urn on July 1, 2004, UTC it will become, at 10 AU from the Sun, the farthest
roboticorbiterthathumankindhaseverestablishedinthesolarsystem.Thenom-
inal mission duration of 4 years and the variable orbit design will allow an un-
precedented exploration of the Saturn system tour over an extended period from
a variety of illumination and viewing geometries. Saturn’s atmosphere, rings, icy
satellites, Titan, and their mutual interactions will all be monitored for temporal
changes in a way not previously possible during the Pioneer and Voyager flyby
missions.
TheCassiniImagingScienceSubsystem(ISS),themostsophisticated,highest-
resolutiontwo-dimensionalimagingdeviceevercarriedintotheoutersolarsystem,
hasbeenspecificallydesignedtoimagebodiesintheSaturnsystem.Initsphotomet-
ricsensitivity,linearityanddynamicrange,itsspectralrangeandfiltercomplement,
resolving power and variety of data collection and compression modes, it repre-
sentsasignificantadvanceoveritspredecessorcarriedonVoyager,asdemonstrated
by the images obtained during the Cassini Jupiter flyby (Porco et al., 2003). As
on other Saturn-bound spacecraft, the ISS is also the instrument used for optical
navigationofthespacecraft.
The cruise to Saturn entailed gravity assist flybys of Venus (one in 1998 and
anotherin1999),Earth(1999)andJupiter(2000/2001),andarelativelyclose(1.5
million km) serendipitous flyby of the asteroid Masursky (2000). Aside from the
usualperiodicin-flightinstrumentcheckoutsduringwhichimageswerecollected
of stars (Spica, Fomalhaut, Pleiades) for spectral and geometric calibration and
for assessing instrument performance, the ISS acquired imaging data only during
theEarth,Masursky,andJupiterflybys.Earthflybyprovidedthefirstopportunity
to take scientific data on planetary targets – in that case, the Moon – as well
as to test in flight the stray light rejection capabilities of the ISS instrument by
imaging very near the limb of the Moon. The Masursky flyby saw the first use
of the autonomous target-tracking capability of the Cassini spacecraft, and the
promise of future success in steady imaging during periods of rapidly changing
geometry during the Cassini orbital tour. Finally, the Jupiter flyby was the first
attempttooperatethespacecraftasitwouldbeusedatSaturn,usingsimplepointing
mosaics and modules, data management in the solid-state recorder (SSR), etc.,
and indicated (as have subsequent observations) accurate absolute and relative
pointing and a steady spacecraft. These results, as well as images collected on
approachtoSaturninearly2004(Figures1 and 2),openuptheexcitingpossibility
of extremely high-quality, sharp, high signal-to-noise (S/N) images of all Saturn
targets, bright and dark, and promise the opening of a new era in outer planet
studies.
CASSINIIMAGINGSCIENCESYSTEM 365
Figure1. SaturnanditsringscompletelyfillthefieldofviewofCassini’snarrow-anglecamerain
thisnaturalcolorimagetakenonMarch27,2004.Thiswasthelastsingle‘eyeful’ofSaturnandits
ringsachievablewiththenarrow-anglecameraonapproachtotheplanet.Theimageshownhereis
acompositeofthreeexposuresinred,green,andblue,takenwhenthespacecraftwas47.7million
km (29.7 million miles) from the planet. The image scale is 286 km (178 miles) per pixel. Color
variationsbetweenatmosphericbandsandfeaturesinthesouthernhemisphereoftheplanet,aswell
assubtlecolordifferencesacrossSaturn’smiddleBring,areevident.
Inthisarticle,wedescribethescientificinvestigationsthattheCassiniImaging
Team (Table I) intends to conduct at Saturn (Section 2), and the characteristics
oftheCassiniImagingScienceSubsystemthatmaketheseinvestigationspossible
(Section3).Wealsopresenttheresultsoftheinstrumentcalibrationsthathavebeen
performedthusfarusingbothgroundcalibrationdatatakenbeforelaunchanddata
takeninflight.
366 C.C.PORCOETAL.
Figure2. Twonarrow-anglecameraTitanimages,each38sexposure,taken4daysapartinmid-
April,2004,throughtheCB3(938nm)filteratanimagescaleof∼230km/pixel.Theimageshave
beenmagnifiedandsmoothlyinterpolatedbyafactoroftenfromtheoriginalimages.Large-scale
variationsinbrightnessacrossthediskarerealandcanbecorrelatedwithfeaturesseenbyEarth-based
observers.ThebottomimagesarethesametwoTitanimagesabove,overlainwithaWesternlongitude
coordinategrid.Thebrightfeaturebetween−30◦latitudeandtheequator,andextendingfrom∼60
to120°WestlongitudeisXanadu,thebrightestfeatureonTitan.
2. AnticipatedImagingScienceInvestigationsatSaturn
Inthissection,wedescribethemajoroutstandingquestionsconcerningSaturnand
itsringsandmoonsthatwillbeaddressedbytheImagingScienceexperimentover
thecourseofCassini’smulti-yearorbitaltour.Inbrief,theCassini4-yeartourcalls
for:
(cid:1)
repeated synoptic imaging of the planet and rings and Titan on approach to
Saturn;
(cid:1)
averycloseflybyofPhoebeonapproachonJune11,2004;
(cid:1)
extremelyhigh-resolutionimagingoftheringsduringtheSaturnOrbitInser-
tion(SOI)maneuverwhenthespacecraftisskimmingovertheringsbyonly
severaltensofthousandsofkilometers;
CASSINIIMAGINGSCIENCESYSTEM 367
TABLE I
Imagingteam.
CarolynPorco,TeamLeader SpaceScienceInstitute,Boulder,CO
AndreBrahic UniversitéParis7-DenisDiderot,Saclay,Paris
JosephBurns CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY
AnthonyDelGenio NASAGoddardInstituteforSpaceStudies,NY,NY
HenryDones SouthwestResearchInstitute,Boulder,CO
AndrewIngersoll Caltech,Pasadena,CA
TorrenceJohnson JetPropulsionLaboratory,Pasadena,CA
AlfredMcEwen UniversityofArizona,Tucson,AZ
CarlMurray QueenMary,UniversityofLondon,London
GerhardNeukum FreieUniversität,Berlin
StevenSquyres CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY
PeterThomas CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY
JosephVeverka CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY
RobertWest JetPropulsionLaboratory,Pasadena,CA
(cid:1)
forty-five (45) close ‘targeted’ flybys of Titan (40 of which approach
within 2500 km of the surface, and 24 of these within 1000 km of the
surface);
(cid:1)
veryclose‘targeted’flybysofEnceladus(4) (Figure3),Dione,Rhea,Iapetus,
andHyperion,allapproachingwithin∼1500kmofthesurface;
(cid:1)
thirty-one(31)non-targetedbutstillclose(within100,000kmofthesurface)
flybysofIapetusandthefivemajoricysatellitesMimas,Enceladus,Tethys,
DioneandRhea;
(cid:1)
three(3)extendedperiodsofinclinedandlow-periapseorbits(May–August
2005,September2006–June2007,andDecember2007–June2008)forhigh-
resolution,high-latituderingandSaturnobserving;
(cid:1)
adozenorbitswithsufficientlydistantapoapsestopermitatmosphericmovie
making.
Imaging sequences planned for the nominal 4-year tour call for the acquisition of
hundreds of thousands of images of known Saturn targets, as well as sequences
designedtosearchfornewsatellitesandfaintringmaterial.Imagingscalesonthe
targetedsatelliteswillbeassmallasafewtensofmeters/pixels;ontheringsand
atmosphere,∼1km/pixel.Incomparison,thebestVoyagerresolutionobtainedon
theSaturniansatelliteswas∼2km/pixel;ontheringsandatmosphere,∼4km/pixel.
ThesophisticatedcapabilitiesoftheISS,togetherwithCassini’supcomingvariable
andextendedtouroftheSaturnsystem,portenddramaticadvancesinourknowledge
ofthisrichplanetarysystemfromtheinvestigationsdescribedherein.
368 C.C.PORCOETAL.
Figure3. Exampleimagingsequenceduringpartofanearly2005closetargettedflybyofEnceladus.
Upperimageshowsthesequenceofsomeframesatarangeofabout29,000km.Lowershowsframes
atabout9000kmrange.Smallboxesarenarrow-angleimages;largeboxinbottomexampleisthe
wide-anglefieldofview.FeaturesmappedbyVoyagerareshown;whiteareaswerenotadequately
imagedbyVoyager.BestVoyagerimageisinFigure7.
CASSINIIMAGINGSCIENCESYSTEM 369
2.1. SATURN’S ICY SATELLITES
TheSaturnsatellitesystem,likethatoftheothergiantplanets,hasseveraldistinct
components.Themostdistantouterpopulationextendsfrom10to20millionkm
(out to the dynamical limit known as the ‘Hill’s sphere’), and is growing rapidly
innumberowingtosuccessfulongoingground-basedtelescopicsearchesfornew
Saturnian moons (Gladman et al., 2001). At last count, this group contains 14
satellites, including Phoebe at a semi-major axis of 12.9 million km; none are
believed to be bigger than ∼20 km across (except Phoebe at ∼220 km diameter),
and about half (including Phoebe) are on retrograde orbits. With the exception of
theclosePhoebeflybyonapproachtoSaturn,noCassiniobservationsofthisgroup
ofobjectshavebeenplanned.
The inner population is a collection of bodies, from ring-embedded Pan at
∼20kmacrosstoMercury-sizedTitan (TableII).Itisarguablythemostcomplex
TABLE II
Saturniansatellitecharacteristics.
a(×103 Period Radius Density
Satellite km) (days) Axes(km) (km) (gcm−3) References
Pan 133.59 0.5751 10 1
Atlas 137.64 0.6019 18 13 16±4 2
Prometheus 139.35 0.6129 70 50 37 51±7 2
Pandora 141.70 0.6288 55 43 32 42±5 2
Epimetheus 151.42 0.6946 70.2 54.1 51.9 58.2±3 0.63±0.11 3
Janus 151.42 0.6946 101.5 94.9 76.8 90.5±3 0.65±0.08 3
Mimas 185.52 0.9424 209.1 195.8 192.2 198.9±0.5 1.12±0.03 5,4
Enceladus 238.02 1.3702 256.3 247.3 244.6 249.4±0.3 1.00±0.03 4
Tethys 294.66 1.8878 535.6 528.2 525.8 529.8±1.5 0.98±0.02 5
Calypso 294.66 1.8878 15 12 7 11±3 2
Telesto 294.66 1.8878 – 12 11 12±3 2
Dione 377.40 2.7369 559±5 1.49±0.05 6,8
Helene 377.40 2.7369 17 – 14 16±3 2
Rhea 527.04 4.5175 764±4 1.24±0.04 7,9
Titan 1221.85 15.9454 2575±2 1.88±0.01 10
Hyperion 1481.1 21.2766 164 130 107 133±8 11
Iapetus 3561.3 79.3302 718±8 1.03±0.1 9
Phoebe 12952. 550.48R 115 110 105 110±3 2
1:Showalter(1991);2:Thomasetal.(1983);3:Nicholsonetal.(1992);4:DermottandThomas
(1994);5:ThomasandDermott(1991);6:DaviesandKatayama(1983a);7:DaviesandKatayama
(1983b);8:HarperandTaylor(1993);9:CampbellandAnderson(1989);10:Lindaletal.(1983);
11:Thomasetal.(1995).
370 C.C.PORCOETAL.
collectionofsatellitesinthesolarsystemandexhibitsanenormousvarietyinshape,
size,planetocentricdistanceandsurfacecharacteristics.Itcontains1430kmwide
Iapetus, whose orbit is the most distant at 3.6 million km and somewhat inclined
(∼15 deg) to Saturn’s equator; the small (∼300 km wide) chaotic rotator Hyper-
ion; haze-enshrouded Titan (5100 km across); the five major icy satellites Rhea,
Dione, Tethys, Enceladus and Mimas (ranging linearly in size with distance from
theplanetfrom1528kmRheato396kmMimas);thesmall(20–30km)Trojans,
Helene,TelestoandCalypso,ofTethysandDione;andfinallytheremaining‘ring
region’ satellites Janus and Epimetheus (the ‘co-orbitals’), the F ring shepherds
Pandora and Prometheus, Atlas orbiting immediately outside the main rings, and
Pan,∼20kmacrossandorbitingwithinthemainringswhereweexpecttofindother
smallgap-clearingmoons.ItisthispopulationthatCassiniwillinvestigateindepth.
The present-day physical, compositional and orbital characteristics of each of
thesebodiesresultfromacombinationoforiginalformationconditionsandsubse-
quentsurfaceand(possibly)orbitmodificationbyexternalandinternalprocesses
operating over geologic time. Consequently, the ISS investigations of these bod-
ies are focused on developing as complete and accurate a picture as possible of
the visual properties of each satellite. Most of these inner satellites are tidally
locked and synchronously rotating with their orbital periods. As a consequence,
theVoyagerspacecraft,eachofwhichspentonlyabriefperiodoftimeintheSat-
urn system, imaged only one hemisphere of some of these moons at reasonably
high (∼2 km) resolution. Cassini’s multi-year tour of the Saturn system, which
includesglobalimagingofalmostallthesebodies,willinpartbeaninitialrecon-
naissance of the other ‘half’ of the Saturnian system. Global spectral images at
Voyagerandbetterresolution,veryhigh,sub-kilometerresolutionimagesoflocal-
izedregions,andrepeatedlongdistanceimagesovertheorbitaltourforpositional
measurementsareallpartoftheimagingsequencesplannedfortheinnerSaturnian
satellites.
ThediversitywithintheSaturniansatellitesystem,anditsplacementtentimes
fartherfromtheSunthanthatofJupiter–theonlyotherouterplanetsatellitesystem
for which we have a moderately detailed view – provide an unusual opportunity
to evaluate and disentangle the contributions of initial conditions and subsequent
modifications to the satellites’ present day attributes. With Cassini observations
in hand, fundamental questions will be addressed, such as: How did heliocentric
distance affect the composition of the original proto-Saturnian nebula materials
andhowdidplanetocentricdistanceaffecttheirsubsequentincorporationintothe
satellites? What have been the thermal and geologic histories of the Saturnian
satellites?Whichsatelliteshaveundergonetidalheatinganddoanyhavepresent-
daysubsurfaceoceans?Howdidthefluxandchronologyofimpactsvaryacrossthe
Saturnian system? How did the impactor populations and chronology vary across
theoutersolarsystem?
TheultimategoalofallCassinisatelliteimaginginvestigationsistodevelopa
more comprehensive view of the origin and evolution of the Saturnian system as
CASSINIIMAGINGSCIENCESYSTEM 371
awhole,andthatofoutergiantplanetsatellitesystemsingeneral.Moreover,asa
collection of bodies, all orbiting in the same plane, in the same direction, around
thesamemassivecentralbody,andnearlyallformedfromthesameprotoplanetary
nebula, the inner Saturnian system resembles the assemblage of planets in orbit
aroundtheSun.Consequently,thestudyoftheSaturniansatelliteswillhavedirect
impact on our understanding of the processes that were in play during the forma-
tionandsubsequentdifferentiationandevolutionoftheplanets.Themultiplicityof
satellitephenotypesaroundSaturn,andtheirdistinctivecharacteristicswhencom-
paredwiththesatellitesoftheothergiantplanets,offeraneagerlyawaitedchance
tounderstandmanyfundamentalaspectsofplanetaryevolution.
The investigations of Titan, whose surface, and therefore geologic history, re-
main unknown, may well yield the single greatest scientific advance from the
Cassini mission. Because the exploration of Titan by Cassini is special, and be-
causetheISShasbeenespeciallyequippedtopenetratethehazethatobscuredthe
surface to the Voyager cameras, we reserve a separate subsection to describe the
pressingscientificquestionssurroundingitandourintendedinvestigations.
2.1.1. Geomorphology
Many of the fundamental questions about the composition, origin and evolution
oftheSaturniansatellitescanbeaddressedbyglobalandhigh-resolutionimaging
of surface morphology. The array of geological and photometric features on each
satellite surface – such as crater densities, tectonic patterns, and albedo markings
– tells not only the body’s individual history, but may be used, in concert with
other information, like mean density, to ascertain the trends across the system in
composition, the physical conditions at time of formation, and other important
factorsthatarerelevanttotheworkingsofthesystemasawhole.
Mostmorphologicalinvestigationstobeaddressedbyimagingarerelevantfor
all satellites. Determination of surface ages from crater density statistics is one
such investigation, and is best accomplished with imaging at low solar elevation
angles, where shadows are longest, and at resolutions as high as possible. The
Galileoexperience(Bierhausetal.,2001)hasshowntheusefulnessofcraterden-
sity measurements of sub-kilometer craters in revealing the order of geological
events(stratigraphy)onsatellitesurfacesandinexaminingthemechanicalproper-
tiesofthesubstrate,althoughinterpretationsmaybecontroversial.Manyproblems
ofgeneralgeologicevolution,suchascraterdegradation,tectonicfaulting,cryovol-
canism,viscousrelaxation,isostaticrebound,andmassmovementsrequireaccurate
measurementsoftopography,includingslopes.Slopeinformationcanbeextracted
fromphotometricandstereogrammetricmeasurements.Therelativeaccuracyand
utilityofstereoimagingdependuponlightingconditionsandtheconvergencean-
gles and pixel scales of different images. For example, 50-m stereo images taken
◦
at a convergence angle of 20 (under similar lighting conditions) yield elevation
accuracies of 13–26 m, depending on image contrast. The rapid flybys and slow
maneuverabilityoftheCassinispacecraftrequirecarefulplanning,useofbothWA
372 C.C.PORCOETAL.
and NA cameras, and combination of imaging from different satellite flybys to
maximizehigh-resolutionstereodata.Additionally,insomeareasphotoclinometry
–thedeterminationofslopesfromthelightscatteringbehaviorofasurfacewhose
photometricfunctionisknown–canbeusedtomaprelativetopographicpatterns.
Photoclinometry can be used to measure slopes at higher spatial resolution with
poorercontrolofregionalslopes,thancanstereogrammetry,sothetwotechniques
arebestcombined(Gieseetal.,1996;Kirketal.,2003).
Onegeologicalexamplewherecriticaltopographicmeasurementsarerequired
isthatoftheridgedunitsonEnceladus,whicharelessthanafewkilomatersacross
and a few hundred meters high. Testing hypotheses for the formation of these
ridgesrequiresrelativeheightdeterminationsofafewtensofmetersdowntoafew
meters.Imagingresolutionsofmeterscalearealsovitalforthegeologicmapping
ofridgecharacteristics,alessonlearnedindetailfromGalileo’simagingofridges
onEuropa (Figure4;Carretal.,1998;Nimmoetal.,2003).Anothercriticaluse
of accurate local topographic measurements lies in mass wasting studies where
measuresofthefillingofcratersandotherdepressions,andtheburialofotherwise
positive relief features, are needed. The surprising findings of significant surface
fillinganderosiononCallistofromGalileoimages(Mooreetal.,1998)showthe
needforthesevolumemeasureswithverticalprecisionoftensofmeters.Current
tour scenarios allow for measurement of vertical displacements on some regions
ofEnceladus,Dione,Iapetus,Hyperion,PhoebeandpossiblyRheaandTitantoa
precisionofafewtensofmeter;areasonMimasandTethysmaybeimagedwith
lowerresolutionstereo.
Individual satellites present geological features that appear unique, and high-
resolutionimagingcanaddressthequestion:whatmakesthemsodifferent?Iapetus
is a prime example. The question of internal/external controls of its large albedo
asymmetry has significance for both models of icy satellite interiors as well as
orbitaldynamics(Section2.1.2).OnerequirementinimagingIapetusisthatboth
lightanddarkareasandtheboundarybetweenthembeseenatfavorableresolution
and lighting. This requirement is met in the currently planned targeted flyby over
theboundary.Thelowflybyspeedallowshighresolution(<50m/pixel)overmany
areaswithinthedarkregion,overbrighterareasnearerthetrailingsideofIapetus,
and in several areas near the boundary where stratigraphic relations are sought.
Planned imaging sequences include stereoscopic data and monoscopic mapping
at high resolution to determine morphology and topography (as well as color and
photometricsampling),muchofthisatmuchbetterthan1km/pixel.
2.1.1.1. Geodesy and Cartography. High-resolution imaging is also required
for the production of geometrically accurate maps. Correct maps are important
toolsfortheplanningofimagingactivitieswhentheobjectiveistopointthecamera
preciselytospecifictargets.Theyalsoformthecontextualbasisforfurthergeologic,
geophysicalandphotometricstudiesofthesatellites.