Cassava in food, feed, and industry

220 Pages·1988·23.023 MB·English

by  C. Balagopalan, S. N. Moorthy, Saroj K. Nanda, G. Padmaja

Cassava in
Food, Feed, and Industry
Authors
C. Balagopalan, Ph.D.
Head
Division of Postharvest Technology
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
Trivandrum, India
G. Padmaja, Ph.D.
Scientist
Division of Postharvest Technology
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
Trivandrum, India
S. K. Nanda, M.Tech.
Scientist
Division of Postharvest Technology
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
Trivandrum, India
S. N. Moorthy, Ph.D.
Scientist
Division of Postharvest Technology
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
Trivandrum, India
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cassava in food, feed, and industry.
Bibliography: p
Includes index.
1. Cassava. I. Balagopalan, C.
TP416.T3C36 1988 633.6’82 88-2626
ISBN 0-8493-4560-X
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PREFACE
Cassava (Manihot escuienta Crantz) is the staple food of more than 300 million people
in the world. Though cassava is utilized in a variety of ways, scientific books of any category
written on the postharvest aspects of cassava are relatively few. The effect of this paucity
was strikingly felt during recent years. This was one of the impelling reasons behind the
present venture which, it is hoped, will stimulate other publications on this neglected crop.
We have made an earnest attempt to collect information on the origin, spread, and
distribution of cassava spoilage and preservation, storage of processed cassava, processing
technology, nutritive and toxic factors, physical and chemical nature of starch, utilization
in feed, food, industry, and analytical methods for cassava.
Though there are many admirable publications on the storage, processing, and utilization
of cassava, no concerted attempt has been made in the past to bring all these aspects under
one umbrella confined to the standard befitting the researchers, technocrats, industrialists,
students, and planners.
In the writing of this volume, Cassava in Food, Feed, and Industry, many recent works
on the subject have been consulted. It is neither possible nor necessary to mention them all
here but our indebtedness to them is enormous.
We wish to record our thanks to the Editor of A.O.A.C., the Copyright Administrator,
American Chemical Society Publishers, Starke Verlag, West Germany, Elsevier, U. K.,
and the IDRC, Ottawa, for the permission accorded to reproduce some of the methods,
tables, and figures in this book. Our thanks are also due to Dr. S. P. Ghosh, Director,
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum, for giving permission to publish this
volume and also to use various photographs. Our thanks are especially due to Dr. S. F.
Rajiva, Montreal, Canada for the correction of the manuscript and Dr. N. Hrishi, former
Director at CTCRI, Trivandrum for his guidance. We are indebted to our colleagues in the
Division of Postharvest Technology, CTCRI, Trivandrum for the timely help given during
the preparation of the manuscript, and also to the Thribhuvana Typing Center, Trivandrum,
for typing the manuscript.
Finally, we are thankful to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for the inspiration
and encouragement given to the researchers for making an endeavor such as this possible.
C. Balagopalan
G. Padmaja
S. K. Nanda
S. N. Moorthy
Trivandrum, India
THE AUTHORS
Cherukat Balagopalan, Ph.D., is Head of the Division of Postharvest Technology,
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum, Kerala, India, under the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research.
Dr. Balagopalan received his B.Sc. (Agriculture) and M.Sc. (Agriculture) degrees from
Kerala University, in 1963 and 1968, respectively. He received his Ph.D. Degree in Ag-
ricultural Microbiology in 1973 from the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore,
India. After serving as a research associate at the Kerala Agricultural University, he joined
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research as a scientist at the Central Tuber Crops Research
Institute in 1974. He has headed the Department of Postharvest Technology of the Institute
since 1979.
Dr. Balagopalan was a Visiting Scientist at the Department of Microbiology, University
of Guelph, Ontario in 1978 and also at the Department of Biochemical Engineering, Hun-
garian Food Research Institute, Budapest, Hungary in 1985. The team lead by Dr. Bala-
gopalan won the national award of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for team
research for the biennium 1985 to '86. The award was for the development of an integrated
technology for the storage, processing, and utilization of cassava.
Dr. Balagopalan has published more than 50 research papers and also guided students for
their Ph.D. degree. His current research interests are recycling of organic wastes for my-
coproteins and energy, starch-based fermentations, and utilization of tuber crops.
Gourikkutty Padmaja, Ph.D., is currently working as a scientist in the Division of
Postharvest Technology, Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum, Kerala, India,
under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
Dr. Padmaja received her B.Sc. degree in Chemistry and M.Sc. degree in Biochemistry,
in 1972 and 1974, respectively, from the Kerala University, Trivandrum, with distinction.
She has taken her Ph.D. on the biochemical aspects of cassava toxicity and is awaiting the
award of the degree.
Dr. Padmaja joined the agricultural research service of the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research in 1976. She has more than 20 publications to her credit and currently is working
on the storage, processing, and utilization of tuber crops. She is also investigating the
nutritional and toxicity aspects of cassava in animal systems. Dr. Padmaja has jointly won
the National Award of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for team research for
the biennium 1985 to '86 for developing an integrated technology for the storage, processing,
and utilization of cassava.
Saroj Kumar Nanda, M.Tech., is currently working as a scientist (agricultural structure
and process engineering) in the Division of Postharvest Technology at the Central Tuber
Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum, India.
Mr. Nanda received his Bachelor's degree in Agricultural Engineering from Orissa Uni-
versity of Agriculture and Technology, in Bhubaneswar, India, and the University gold
medal for securing 1st rank. After completing his M.Tech. at the Indian Institute of Tech-
nology, Kharagpur, India, in 1979 he joined the Agricultural Research Service. He has been
engaged in research to develop processing techniques and equipment at CTCRI. He has
designed approximately six prototypes thus far, including one patented with the National
Research and Development Corporation of India. He has 12 publications to his credit.
His current research interests are utilization of renewable sources of energy for processing
cassava, development of modern small-scale starch extraction systems, and storage of cassava
products.
Mr. Nanda has jointly been the recipient of the ICAR Award for Team Research for the
biennium 1985 to '86.
Subramoney Narayana Moorthy, Ph.D., is currently working as a scientist in the
Postharvest Technology Division of the Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum,
India. After completing his Bachelor's degree in Chemistry in 1969, he obtained his Master's
and Doctorate degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India, in 1969 and
1975, respectively.
Rejoined CTCRI as a scientist through the Agricultural Research Service in 1976. Since
then he has worked on the chemistry of tuber crops starches, utilization of tuber crops for
various food products, and biochemical evaluation of the various tuber crops. He has over
30 publications in national and international journals. He has participated in an international
training program on cassava utilization organized by Centro Internacional Colombia de
Agricultura Tropical, Colombia, in 1986. Dr. S. N. Moorthy has jointly won the National
award of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for team research for the biennium
1985 to 86, in agriculture, for developing an integrated technology for the storage, processing,
and utilization of cassava.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
I. Background 1
II. The Crop and its Production 1
III. Consumption Pattern 1
IV. Storage and Processing 2
V. Cassava Starch 2
VI. Cooking Quality 2
VII. Cattle Feed 2
VIII. Nonconventional Products 2
References 3
Chapter 2
Cassava Origin, Distribution, and Cultivation 5
I. Botany 5
II. Origin and Spread 6
III. Cultivation 7
A. Climate 7
B. Soils 8
C. Preparation of Land 8
D. Selection of Planting Materials 8
E. Manures and Manuring 9
F. Intercultivation and Earthing-Up 9
G. Irrigation 10
H. Multiple Cropping Systems 10
I. Diseases and Pests 10
1. Mosaic Disease 10
2.. Brown Leaf Spot 10
3. Cassava Bacterial Blight 11
4. Superelongation 11
5. Set Rot 11
6. Dieback 11
7. Red Spider Mites and Mealy Bugs 11
8. Thrips 11
9. Rats 11
J. Harvesting 11
References 12
Chapter 3
Cassava Nutrition and Toxicity 13
I. Nutritive Value of Cassava 13
A. Cassava Roots: Nutritive Value 13
B. Cassava Leaves: Nutritive Value 15
II. Toxic Principles in Cassava 16
A. Cyanogenic Glycosides: Biosynthesis 17
B. Cyanogenic Glycosides: Catabolism 18
C. Physiological and Biochemical Effects of Cyanide and Cyanogenic
Glycosides 18
1. Acute and Chronic Effects of Cyanide 20
2. Action and Metabolism of Linamarin 20
D. In Vivo Detoxification of Cyanide 21
E. Cyanide and Human Diseases 22
1. Leber's Optical Atrophy 22
2. Tropical Ataxic Neuropathy 22
3. Endemic Goiter and Cretinism 23
4. Tropical Calcifying Pancreatitis 24
F. Prophylactic Action of Cassava 24
G. Detoxification of Cassava through Processing Techniques 25
1. Drying 25
2. Soaking and Boiling 25
3. Fermentation 26
H. Assay Methods for Cyanoglucosides in Cassava and Cassava
Products 26
1. Liberation of HCN from Cyanogenic Glycosides of
Cassava 27
2. Isolation of HCN 28
3. Spectrophotometric Direct Assay Methods for Cyanide 28
References 29
Chapter 4
Cassava Spoilage and Preservation 37
I. Postharvest Deterioration of Cassava Tubers 37
A. Vascular Streaking in Cassava 37
B. Microbial Rotting of Cassava Tubers 40
C. Cyanide Detoxification by Rhizopus oryzae 41
D. Cellular Enzymes Associated with Cassava Spoilage 42
1. Cellulase 42
2. Amylase 43
3. Polyphenol Oxidase 43
4. Gel Electrophoretic Studies 45
E. Extracellular Enzymes Associated with Cassava Spoilage 45
1. Amylase 45
2. Cellulase 45
3. Polyphenol Oxidase and Peroxidase 45
II. Techniques of Cassava Storage 46
A. Storage in Boxes 46
B. Storage in Plastic Bags or Film 46
C. Waxing 47
D. Chemical Treatments 47
E. Field Clamp Storage 47
F. Storage in Moist Sand and Soil 48
References 50
Chapter 5
Preservation of Dried Cassava Products 51
I. Preservation by Dehydration 51
A. Packaging and Storage 51
II. Cassava Chips 52
A. Magnitude of Postharvest Losses 52
1. Insects Infesting Dried Cassava 52
B. Insect Control Measures 52
1. Improved Storage Management 53
2. Protective Packaging 53
3. Chemical Methods 53
C. Microbial Spoilage of Cassava Chips 54
1. Control Measures 54
III. Cassava Flour 54
A. Magnitude of Spoilage 54
B. Insect Infestation of Cassava Flour 55
1. Control Measures 55
C. Microbial Spoilage 55
IV. Pellets 55
V. Starch 55
VI. Sago 57
VII. Vermicelli, Spaghetti, and Macaroni 57
References 58
Chapter 6
Processing of Cassava 59
I. Cassava Chips 59
A. Mechanical Devices to Prepare Cassava Chips 59
1. Hand-Operated Cassava Chipping Machine 60
2. Malaysian Chipping Machine 60
3. Thai Chipping Machine 61
4. Cassava Chipping Machine in Nigeria 62
II. Cassava Pellets 62
A. Cassava Pelletizing Process 63
B. Pellet Quality 63
1. Factors Affecting Pellet Quality 63
2. Tests for Pellet Quality 64
III. Cassava Drying 64
A. Sundrying 64
B. Tray Drying 65
1. Drying on Shelf-Tray 66
2. Drying on Inclined Mesh Tray 66
3. Drying on Vertical Tray 66
C. Solar Drying 66
D. Artificial Drying 68
E. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Cassava 69
References 70
Chapter 7
Cassava in Animal Feed 73
I. Cassava as Feed Source for Poultry 73
A. Additives Added to Cassava-Based Diets for Poultry 75
II. Cassava as Feed for Swine 77
A. Cassava Leaf Meal in the Nutrition of Swines 79
III. Cassava in Ruminant Nutrition 79
A. Milch Animals 79
B. Steers 80
C. Growing Calves 80
D. Goats and Sheep 80
E. Cassava Leaf Meal in Ruminant Nutrition 81
IV. Nutritional Studies on Small Animals 82
V. Cassava By-Products as Feed Source for Animals 83
VI. Cassava Silage as Animal Feed 84
VIL Microbial Protein-Enriched Cassava Feeds 85
References 88
Chapter 8
Cassava Foods
I. Introduction 97
II. Cooking Quality of Cassava 97
III. Traditional Cassava Preparations 98
A. Fresh Cassava Tubers as Food 98
B. Grating, Pounding, Baking, or Boiling 99
1. Manicuera 99
2. Mingao 99
3. Fufu 99
4. Dumby 99
5. Ampesi 100
6. Farina 100
7. Cassareep/Tucupay 100
8. Landang or Cassava Rice 100
9. Macaroni 100
10. Cassava Pudding 100
C. Cassava Flour Preparations 100
1. Cassava Dumplings 101
2. Cassava Fruit Cake 101
3. Cassava Cakes 101
4. Cassava Banana Fritters 101
5. Cassava Puttu 102
6. Cassava Uppuma 102
7. Cassava Masala Poori 102
8. Cassava Porotta 102
9. Cassava Vattayappam 103
10. Cassava Idiappam 103
11. Cassava Iddli 103
12. Cassava Dosai 103
D. Fermented Foods 103
1. Cassava Bread 103
2. Gari 105
3. Meduame-M Bong 105
4. Attieke 105
5. Chick Wangue 106