Case study of Mashhad, Iran Atepheh Amid

436 Pages·2014·45.59 MB·English

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Night, Space and Urban design:
Case study of Mashhad, Iran

Atepheh Amid

School of Architecture and the Built Environment

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Night, Space and Urban design:
Case study of Mashhad, Iran

Atepheh Amid

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the
University of Westminster
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

September 2013
Declaration

I declare that all the material contained in this thesis is my own work. No portion of the
work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another
degree or qualification of this university or any other institutions.
Some parts of this thesis were presented in the following conferences and published in the
conference book:
 Urbanism and Urbanization VI International PhD Seminar, Venice 27/29 October
2011
 Urban Change in Iran Conference, UCL, London 8/9 November 2012
 Symposia Iranica: the First Biennial Graduate Conference on Iranian Studies,
St Andrews, 13/14 April 2013

I
Acknowledgments

I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to my
supervisors Professor Marion Roberts and Dr Adam Eldridge for their exemplary guidance,
monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this thesis.
Besides, I would like to thank Georgina Christodoulou for her invaluable assistance, which
helped me in planning and analysing the survey. Many thanks also to Trev Wardle who
patiently proofread this thesis.
I wish to express my love and gratitude to my family and friends for their constant
encouragement and understanding without which this study would not be possible. Finally
I would like to thank all the respondents in the shrine area of Mashhad. This study would
not have been possible without their co-operation.

II
Abstract

In contemporary societies time distinctions are being reconfigured. Although in modern-
life technology enables new forms of social activities and entertainments and the
possibility to experience them day and night, night has been known and experienced
differently in various cultures and in different time periods. Discussions of the city at night
are dominated by the framework and experience of Western Europe, the USA and
Australia. However, night-life in other places could be different and in order to achieve an
in-depth understanding of the concepts of a night-time economy and a 24-hour society it is
important to study night-life in various parts of the world.
In this thesis Mashhad is investigated as a 24-hour city in Iran. Night-life in Iran, as a
Middle-Eastern country, is different from the available literature as a result of various
social and cultural factors. In Iran, because of religious discipline, there are no pubs, bars,
casinos or clubs. However, cities work at night with a continuity of their day-time
activities. Mashhad, as one of the holiest cities in Shiite Islam with the shrine of Imam
Reza located at its centre, is visited annually by over 25 million pilgrims. The large
number of visitors and the shrine are characteristics of the city and its 24-hour activity.
Boundaries between day and night in Mashhad are less clear cut and night-life includes all
kinds of activities including religious, business, recreational, social or commercial.
However, the Regeneration and Reconstruction Plan of Imam Reza’s Shrine Area, started
in 2001, is threatening the 24-hour features of the shrine area by attempting to modernise it
in order to attract and accommodate more pilgrims. This study aims to investigate how to
improve nightlife by considering the impact of urban design. It studies the night-life of the
shrine area in Mashhad through a multi-method approach and investigates the impact of
recent urban design interventions. In addition, a series of guidelines are proposed for
revitalisation of the shrine area whilst keeping and supporting its local active night-life.
This study fills a part of the gap in the literature of a 24-hour society and night-time
economy through investigating a less-studied type of 24-hour society in a context that has
not been considered previously and is helpful in redefining the ideas which have been
formed because of this gap. By investigating the interconnections between the temporal
structure of cities, their spatial form and mass pilgrimage this study argues that social,
cultural, economic, political and climatic factors are all important in the formation of
night-life in a city and highlights the possible threats to the night-life of cities that might
result from urban design approaches that ignore a local context. It also shows that the
social and temporal habits of the people who shape a city’s night-life are a product of the
discussed factors which may change through time. By emphasising the importance of the
local night-time economy in the formation of 24-hour societies, the findings of this study
highlight the necessity of considering the night-life of urban areas in regeneration plans.
These findings have direct policy relevance in the regeneration plan of the shrine area in
Mashhad and are helpful for regeneration plans of similar cases with local active night-life.

III
Table of Contents

Declaration ............................................................................................................................. I 
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................. II 
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ III 
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ IV 
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... IX 
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... XIV 
Chapter One - Introduction .................................................................................................... 1 
Aims and objectives ........................................................................................................... 7 
Structure of the thesis ......................................................................................................... 7 
Chapter Two – Night-life ..................................................................................................... 11 
History of darkness ........................................................................................................... 13 
Illumination ...................................................................................................................... 14 
Emergence of a 24-hour society ....................................................................................... 15 
24-hour city ................................................................................................................... 20 
Night-time economy ..................................................................................................... 21 
International scope............................................................................................................ 27 
Planning and managing the night-time city ...................................................................... 32 
Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 37 
Chapter Three – City ............................................................................................................ 40 
Modernisation ................................................................................................................... 42 
Alternative efforts ............................................................................................................. 46 
Modernism and traditional urbanism................................................................................ 47 
Betterment planning ......................................................................................................... 49 
Public life ......................................................................................................................... 52 
Successful public spaces................................................................................................... 55 
Diversity ........................................................................................................................... 56 
Mixed-use ......................................................................................................................... 58 
Pedestrian activities .......................................................................................................... 59 
Block size ......................................................................................................................... 60 
Small businesses and active frontages .............................................................................. 61 
Visual permeability .......................................................................................................... 62 
IV
People surveillance ........................................................................................................... 63 
Permanent users ................................................................................................................ 64 
Street furniture .................................................................................................................. 64 
Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 66 
Chapter Four – Pilgrimage ................................................................................................... 70 
Pilgrimage history ............................................................................................................ 71 
Development .................................................................................................................... 74 
Natural pilgrimage sites .................................................................................................... 76 
Constructed pilgrimage sites with minimum level of development ................................. 77 
Pilgrimage sites as tourism destinations ........................................................................... 77 
The Holy See of the Vatican ......................................................................................... 77 
Jerusalem ...................................................................................................................... 79 
Pilgrimage sites with religious night-time activities ........................................................ 82 
Fatima ........................................................................................................................... 82 
Mecca and Medina ........................................................................................................ 83 
Mashhad ........................................................................................................................ 88 
Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 93 
Chapter Five - Methods ........................................................................................................ 98 
Aims, objectives and research questions .......................................................................... 99 
Multi-method approach .................................................................................................. 101 
Urban design ................................................................................................................... 103 
Research methods ........................................................................................................... 105 
Survey research ........................................................................................................... 107 
Sampling ................................................................................................................ 108 
Survey techniques .................................................................................................. 110 
Direct observation ....................................................................................................... 111 
Observations techniques ........................................................................................ 112 
Semi-structured interviews ......................................................................................... 113 
Secondary data ............................................................................................................ 114 
Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 114 
Reliability ....................................................................................................................... 116 
Limitations and ethical consideration ............................................................................. 117 
Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 118 
Chapter Six - Iran ............................................................................................................... 119 
V
Night-life in Iran ............................................................................................................. 121 
Social and cultural reasons ......................................................................................... 122 
Working ................................................................................................................. 122 
Shopping habits ...................................................................................................... 122 
Visiting friends and relatives ................................................................................. 123 
Going to specific meetings ..................................................................................... 123 
Everyday activities on special dates ....................................................................... 123 
Religious reasons ............................................................................................................ 126 
Climatic reasons ............................................................................................................. 127 
Urbanism in Iran ............................................................................................................. 127 
Elements of Cities .......................................................................................................... 128 
Streets ......................................................................................................................... 128 
Bazaar ......................................................................................................................... 130 
Masjed ......................................................................................................................... 134 
Haram ......................................................................................................................... 136 
History of Urban Planning in Iran .................................................................................. 137 
First wave of modernisation ........................................................................................... 138 
Second wave of modernisation ....................................................................................... 139 
After revolution period ................................................................................................... 141 
Iran in the post-secular world ..................................................................................... 142 
Post war period ............................................................................................................... 143 
Triumph and fall of reformists ....................................................................................... 145 
Centralised government .................................................................................................. 145 
Transportation system .................................................................................................... 147 
Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 148 
Chapter Seven - Mashhad .................................................................................................. 153 
Night-time activities ....................................................................................................... 155 
Everyday activities ...................................................................................................... 155 
Religious practices ...................................................................................................... 157 
Wedding ceremonies .................................................................................................. 158 
Visiting the countryside .............................................................................................. 159 
Night-market ............................................................................................................... 159 
Women at the night-life of Mashhad .............................................................................. 161 
Establishment and early development of Mashhad ........................................................ 161 
VI
History of urban design in Mashhad .............................................................................. 163 
Regeneration and Reconstruction Plan of Imam Reza’s Shrine (RPIS) ......................... 173 
Analysing the current situation ....................................................................................... 177 
Traffic in the shrine area ............................................................................................. 181 
Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 188 
Chapter Eight – Case study ................................................................................................ 191 
A night in the shrine area................................................................................................ 193 
Surveys studying pilgrims .............................................................................................. 195 
Analysis of the survey .................................................................................................... 200 
Sector one ................................................................................................................... 201 
24-hour activities .................................................................................................... 208 
Perception of safety ................................................................................................ 211 
Social interactions .................................................................................................. 212 
Pedestrian facilities ................................................................................................ 213 
The area’s requirements ......................................................................................... 214 
Sector two ................................................................................................................... 217 
24-hour activities .................................................................................................... 220 
Perception of safety ................................................................................................ 222 
Social interactions .................................................................................................. 222 
Pedestrian facilities ................................................................................................ 223 
The area’s requirements ......................................................................................... 223 
Sector three ................................................................................................................. 225 
24-hour activities .................................................................................................... 232 
Perception of safety ................................................................................................ 234 
Social interactions .................................................................................................. 235 
Pedestrian facilities ................................................................................................ 235 
The area’s requirements ......................................................................................... 236 
Sector four .................................................................................................................. 238 
24-hour activities .................................................................................................... 242 
Perception of safety ................................................................................................ 243 
Social interactions .................................................................................................. 243 
Pedestrian facilities ................................................................................................ 243 
The area’s requirements ......................................................................................... 244 
Shrine employees ........................................................................................................ 246 
VII
Semi-structured interview with the planning authorities ................................................ 247 
Policy for closing businesses at night ............................................................................. 249 
Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 255 
Chapter Nine - Impacts of urban design on the night-life of the case study ...................... 260 
The Revitalisation and Reconstruction Plan of Imam Reza’s shrine area, RPIS ........... 261 
Contradictions ................................................................................................................ 270 
Impacts of RPIS on the night-life of the shrine area ...................................................... 273 
Large-scale demolition ............................................................................................... 277 
Large-scale redevelopment ......................................................................................... 279 
Increasing the block-size ............................................................................................ 281 
Displacement .............................................................................................................. 283 
Financial exclusion ..................................................................................................... 285 
Lack of diversity ......................................................................................................... 287 
Loss of safety, perception of safety and active frontages ........................................... 287 
Invasion of public space ............................................................................................. 289 
Chapter Ten- Conclusion ................................................................................................... 294 
Original contribution to knowledge................................................................................ 295 
Methods used to achieve these outcomes ....................................................................... 298 
Findings .......................................................................................................................... 304 
Aims and objectives of recommendations ...................................................................... 310 
Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 311 
Pedestrian activities .................................................................................................... 314 
Mixed-use, small businesses and everyday use .......................................................... 316 
Current users ............................................................................................................... 317 
Redevelopment ........................................................................................................... 318 
Alterations and extensions .......................................................................................... 319 
Signage ....................................................................................................................... 319 
The character of the shrine area .................................................................................. 320 
Further studies ................................................................................................................ 323 
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 325 
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................ 353 
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................ 367 
Appendix C ........................................................................................................................ 372 
Appendix D ........................................................................................................................ 390
VIII