Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli and papal politics in European affairs PDF
Preview Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli and papal politics in European affairs
Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli and Papal Politics in European Affairs Page ii Cardinal Antonelli. Secretary of State to Pius IX. Page iii Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli and Papal Politics in European Affairs Frank J. Coppa State University of New York Press Page iv Published by State University of New York Press, Albany ©1990 State University of New York All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, address State University of New York Press, State University Plaza, Albany, N.Y., 12246 Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Coppa, Frank J. Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli and papal politics in European affairs / Frank J. Coppa. p. cm. Bibliography: p. Includes index. ISBN 0791401847. — ISBN 0791401855 (pbk.) 1. Antonelli, Giacomo, 1806–1876. 2. Cardinals—Italy—Biography. 3. Catholic Church—Relations (diplomatic)—Europe. 4. Europe Foreign relations—Catholic Church. 5. Papal States History—1815–1870. I. Title. BX4705.A625C67 1990 282´.092´4—dc19 894357 [B] CIP 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Page v Hist! here's the archknave in a Cardinal's hat, With the heart of a wolf, and the stealth of a cat (As if Judas and Herod together were rolled), Who keeps, all as one, the Pope's conscience and gold, Mounts guard on the altar, and pilfers from thence, And flatters St. Peter while stealing his pence! Who doubts Antonelli? Have miracles ceased When robbers say mass, and Barabbas is priest? From Perugia John Greenleaf Whittier Page vii Contents Chapter One 1 Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli: The Myth and the Man Chapter Two 9 First Year: The Antonelli Family Chapter Three 23 Early Career: Giacomo Conquers Rome from the Provinces Chapter Four 35 Antonelli Accompanies Pio Nono on the Path of Reformism, 1846–1848 Chapter Five 47 The Antonelli Government: The First Constitutional Ministry of the Papal States Chapter Six 57 The Cardinal Confronts the Revolution and the Roman Republic Chapter Seven 73 Architect of the Conservative Restoration Chapter Eight 87 The Quiet Before the Storm Chapter Nine 101 The Cardinal Between the Intrigues of Napoleon III and the Intransigence of Pio Nono Chapter Ten 115 Antonelli Confronts Italian Unification Chapter Eleven 129 The Troubled 1860s Chapter Twelve 145 The Infallible Pope and His Fallible Minister Page viii Chapter Thirteen 155 The Fall of Rome and After Chapter Fourteen 169 Last Years: "Prisoner" in the Vatican Chapter Fifteen 183 Conclusion: Villain of the Risorgimento or Hero of the Counter Risorgimento? Notes 197 Bibliography 245 Index 295 Page 1 Chapter One Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli: The Myth and The Man Giacomo Antonelli, the chief minister and advisor of Pope Pius IX (1846–1878), was one of the remarkable men of the nineteenth century. A figure of continental importance for almost three decades, he played a leading role as diplomatic agent in Europe and powerbroker in Rome. Contemporaries complained that the longest reigning Pontiff confided only in Antonelli, refusing to discuss political affairs with any of the other cardinals. 1 Following the feverish succession of six ministers in the convulsive years from 1846 to 1848, Giacomo was to monopolize the Secretariate of State from the end of 1848 to his death in 1876—an extraordinarily long tenure in the history of Papal Rome. Antonelli directed Vatican diplomacy during the tumultuous years when Russia, Austria, and France faced military defeat, the United States was divided by the Civil War, the Maximilian Affair troubled diplomats on two continents, Papal infallibility was proclaimed, Italy and Germany were unified, and the Roman Question, and the Kulturkampf, burdened the Papacy. He crossed swords with Cavour, Bismarck, and Napoleon III among others. He was disliked but respected by the Germans, baffled the English, and infuriated the politicians of the new Italy. No other Secretary of State, not even Ercole Consalvi under Pius VII, was seen to wield such influence. Small wonder that sovereigns and citizens courted his influence.2 The impact of this "Prime Minister" of the Pope transcended Europe and reached the new world.3 "The life of this ambitious and indomitable statesman," read his obituary in the New York Times, "has embraced some of the most stirring moments in the history of the Church."4 Since Antonelli supervised the ecclesiastical affairs of the Catholic Church, as well as the political interests Page 2 of the Papal States, his influence was farreaching. Nonetheless, the man who sought to defend Rome from Italian nationalism French opportunism, and an unfriendly Zeitgeist, has long been without an objective biography. A number of excellent articles have focused on the Cardinal, but to date no scholarly book has appeared in English on the alter ego of Pius IX (Pio Nono). 5 Although neglected as a historical subject, the Cardinal was early a target of gossip and criticism.6 Both his character and conduct were branded ignominious.7 Regarded by the liberals as the incarnation of evil, his wealth, position, power, and the fact that he was a cardinal though not a priest, provoked scandal. Some doubted that he had any religious sentiment, charging that he was a mason.8 In pride he was considered a match for Lucifer, in politics a disciple of Machiavelli. Described as Cesare Borgia and Machiavelli bound into one, he was transformed into an absolutely repellent figure. He was depicted as a monstrous fiend with "long, fanglike teeth," "thick lips" and the "grossest of appetites,"9 and Gregorovius noted in his diary that while ''the upper part of his face is clear cut and almost handsome, the lower ends in the animal.''10 Antonelli's face was described as "Egyptian" or "Asiatic" of "moorish hue" with "rolling, demonical" eyes and "eagle beak." His look was deemed glassy and penetrating and his smile cold, and at once immutable and eloquent. Characterized as ugly to the point of beastiality, his features supposedly betrayed him as the "perfect type of low, political adventurer. His soft hands were said to hide the hawk's talons, remorseless in their search and viselike in their grip."11 Even those less hostile to Antonelli's policies were intrigued by the Cardinal's appearance. That sallow, intensely Italian face; those great black eyes, never at rest; those parted lips, that show the glittering teeth; the jetblack hair; the worn yet defiant look so full of intelligence, power, and pride, can belong to none but Antonelli. His very walk is a kind of stride, that speaks, as it were, of the superabundant energy of one of the most remarkable men of the day—a man relied on by many as a minister of high courage, and eminent ability, but dreaded and detested by the revolutionary party.12 "His perfect manners were the shining armour of a complete control over anything which could reveal his thought," wrote another, adding, "and yet, while he sat silent, they suggested a charm which invited confidence."13 Page 3 Descriptions of Antonelli's personality have been no less colorful than depictions of his appearance. He has been termed "vulgar," "coarse," ''brutal," "avaricious," "venal," ''ambitious," "sinister," "skeptical," and "sensuous," but alleged to be "slippery," "able" and "artful" in his scheming. It was said that he fascinated like a siren, which the family had as an emblem. Unfortunately, this magic was misused as Antonelli was seen to be implacably driven by greed for personal advancement. The plush carpeting and expensive furniture in his office in the secretariate of state was deemed inappropriate for a minister of the Pope. Much was made of the fact that he had his family ennobled, and supposedly nominated his brother Filippo governor of the Banca Romana, brother Luigi, an administrator of the Pontifical Railroads, leaving his brother Gregorio responsible for affairs in the countryside. All were made counts including his youngest brother Angelo, who lived in Paris. 14 Filippo Antonelli's speculative maneuvers were held responsible for the financial plight of the Papal States, which was believed to be aggravated by the Cardinal's massive fraud. A biographer of Count Cavour claimed: During the quarter of a century between the return of Pius and Antonelli's death, the Cardinal Secretary amassed a fortune estimated at upwards of 60,000,000 lire. Wherever money passed, there he took his toll. He embezzled public funds, appropriated public estates, sold offices, honors and favors, blackmailed the rich, stript the poor. Whoever had an important suit must buy the Cardinal's good offices in order to receive a favorable verdict.15 Antonelli was believed to enrich himself by taking bribes and exacting commissions from those he assigned public contracts, as well as amassing vast sums by controlling the rise and fall of prices. Even funds earmarked for the Pope or the religious orders were allegedly directed into the pockets of his rapacious relatives. Graft and corruption, claimed a spate of rumors, made Antonelli the second richest man in Rome after Torlonia. The Cardinal was condemned for substituting the nepotism of the Popes with that of the Secretary of State.16 Reportedly, Antonelli enjoyed the company of attractive women, provoking scandal which proliferated as lurid stories of torrid affairs circulated. Adulterous relationships, it was whispered, had been instrumental in advancing his career. His sexual
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