Carbofuran and Wildlife Poisoning: Global Perspectives and Forensic Approaches

300 Pages·9.425 MB·English

Carbofuran and Wildlife
Poisoning
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Carbofuran and Wildlife
Poisoning
Global Perspectives and
Forensic Approaches
Ngaio Richards
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This edition fi rst published 2012, © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Carbofuran and wildlife poisoning: global perspectives and forensic approaches / [edited by]
Ngaio Richards.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-74523-6 (cloth)
1. Carbofuran—Environmental aspects. 2. Carbofuran—Toxicology. I. Richards, Ngaio.
QH545.P4C37 2012
363.738’498—dc23
2011030187
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF 978-1-119-99854-9; Wiley Online Library
978-1-119-99853-2; ePub 978-1-119-95110-0; Mobi 978-1-119-9511-7
Set in 9/11 Times by MPS Limited, a Macmillan Company, Chennai, India.
Printed in [Country] by [Printer]
First Impression 2011
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Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
Contributor biographies xv
1 An overview of the chemistry, manufacture, environmental
fate and detection of carbofuran 1
Stephen Donovan, Mark Taggart, Ngaio Richards
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The chemistry and mode of action of carbofuran 1
1.3 Manufacture and formulation of carbofuran 4
1.4 Carbofuran in the environment 5
1.4.1 Carbofuran precursors, metabolism and degradation products 6
1.5 Analytical methods used to detect carbofuran 8
1.5.1 Principles of chromatography 8
1.6 Conclusions 17
Acknowledgements 17
References 17
2 Carbofuran: Toxicity, diagnosing poisoning and rehabilitation
of poisoned birds 19
Pierre Mineau, Stuart Porter, Carol Uphoff Meteyer
2.1 Acute toxicity of carbofuran to birds and mammals 19
2.2 Exposure routes for the liquid formulation 22
2.3 Exposure routes for granular carbofuran formulations 23
2.3.1 Direct ingestion 23
2.3.2 Contaminated soil invertebrates 25
2.3.3 Contaminated soil/sediments 26
2.4 The time course of carbofuran intoxication 26
2.5 Physiological effects and signs of intoxication 27
2.6 Physical fi eld evidence and necropsy fi ndings in poisonings due
to AChE inhibiting compounds with special emphasis on carbofuran 28
2.7 Chemical and biochemical diagnosis of a carbofuran kill 31
2.8 Rehabilitation of poisoned wildlife 33
2.9 Conclusion 34
Acknowledgements 34
References 34
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vi CONTENTS
3 A chronicling of long-standing carbofuran use and its menace
to wildlife in Kenya 39
3.1 Introduction 39
Joseph O. Lalah, Peter O. Otieno, Ngaio Richards
3.2 Background on pesticide use and environmental monitoring in Kenya 43
Joseph O. Lalah and Peter O. Otieno
3.2.1 Furadan use in rice farming: how carbofuran fi rst gained entry
into Kenya 43
3.2.2 Presence, persistence and degradation of carbofuran in Kenyan soils 46
3.2.3 General purchase and application of pesticides 48
3.2.4 General trends in use of pesticides in agricultural communities 49
3.3 Measuring the conservation threat that deliberate poisoning poses to
birds in Kenya: The case of pesticide hunting with Furadan in the
Bunyala Rice Irrigation Scheme 53
Martin Odino
3.3.1 Introduction 53
3.3.2 Methodology 54
3.3.3 Results of the study 57
3.3.4 Discussion 67
3.3.5 General conclusions 69
3.4 The role of carbofuran in the decline of lions and other carnivores
in Kenya 70
Laurence Frank, Alayne Cotterill, Stephanie Dolrenry, Leela Hazzah
3.4.1 Background information 70
3.4.2 Use of poison to kill carnivores in Kenya 71
3.4.3 Methods used to assess repercussions to scavenging mammals 71
3.4.4 Results 72
3.4.5 Discussion 74
3.5 Threats of secondary Furadan poisoning to scavengers, especially vultures,
in Kenya 74
Darcy Ogada
3.5.1 Misuse of Furadan to control farm pests 74
3.5.2 Effects of Furadan on vulture populations in Kenya 75
3.6 Forensic analysis of carbofuran in vultures and environmental samples
collected from Laikipia and Isiolo districts 77
Peter Otieno, Joseph O. Lalah, Munir Z. Virani
3.6.1 Survey result 78
3.6.2 Analysis of environmental sample 78
3.6.3 Conclusions of the study 81
3.7 Repercussions of pesticides (including carbofuran) on nontarget,
benefi cial insects and use of insects in forensic analyses in Kenya 81
Dino J. Martins
3.7.1 Studies on nontarget insects 81
3.7.2 Overview of insect diversity and abundance at a
mammalian carcass: the use of insects in upcoming forensic
investigations in Kenya 82
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CONTENTS vii
3.8 Analytical, legal and regulatory mechanisms in Kenya 84
Joseph O. Lalah and Peter O. Otieno
3.8.1 Analytical methodology required and research capacity
available in Kenya 84
3.8.2 Legislation and regulation of pesticides in Kenya 85
3.9 General conclusions on carbofuran use, misuse and monitoring
in Kenya 87
Joseph Lalah and Peter Otieno
Acknowledgements 90
References 91
4 Mitigating human-wildlife confl ict and retaliatory poisonings in
India to preserve biodiversity and maintain sustainable livelihoods 99
Venkataramanan, R. and Sreekumar, C.
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Conservation measures and human-wildlife confl icts 100
4.3 Types of human-wildlife confl ict 101
4.4 Regulation and management of human-wildlife confl ict 105
4.5 Use of carbofuran in India 109
4.6 Use of carbofuran in relation to other compounds 110
4.7 Diagnosing carbofuran poisoning in India 110
4.8 Forensic facilities and analyses in India 112
4.9 Case studies: use of carbofuran for poisoning in relation
to other compounds 113
4.9.1 Accidental exposure 113
4.9.2 Misuse of carbofuran 115
4.9.3 Deliberate poisoning using carbofuran and other compounds 116
4.10 Potential short and long-term solutions 121
4.10.1 Alternatives to carbofuran 121
4.10.2 Should carbofuran be banned in India? 122
4.11 Mitigation of human-wildlife confl icts 123
4.11.1 Habitat conservation 123
4.11.2 Community-based solutions 125
4.11.3 Compensation for loss of property 125
4.12 Conclusion 127
Acknowledgements 128
References 128
5 Regulation of carbofuran and its use to poison wildlife
in the European Union and the rest of Europe 132
5.1 Introduction 132
5.2 Intentional poisoning of piscivorous species and other wildlife
with carbofuran in the Czech Republic 135
Lukáš Poledník, Kateˇrina Poledníková, Jitka Vˇetrovcová, Václav Hlaváˇc
5.2.1 Introduction 136
5.2.2 Poisoning of wildlife by carbofuran and its detection within
the Czech Republic 136
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viii CONTENTS
5.2.3 Legal and institutional framework against wildlife poisoning
in the Czech Republic 138
5.3 Persecution and poisoning of birds of prey in the Netherlands 139
Hugh Jansman, Peter van Tulden
5.3.1 Introduction 139
5.3.2 The scale of carbofuran use to poison wildlife, especially birds
of prey, in the Netherlands 140
5.3.3 Detection of carbofuran and other compounds in wildlife carcasses 142
5.3.4 Recommendations 142
5.4 Initiatives underway to protect wildlife from carbofuran poisoning
in Austria 144
Christian Pichler, Hermann Ammer
5.4.1 Introduction 143
5.4.2 Initiatives underway to generate awareness, about, and monitor
incidents of, carbofuran-related wildlife mortality in Austria 144
5.4.3 Toxicological analysis of wildlife carcasses in Austria 146
5.4.4 Conclusions 146
5.5 Use of specialised canine units to detect poisoned baits and recover
forensic evidence in Andalucía (Southern Spain) 147
Iñigo Fajardo, Antonio Ruiz, Irene Zorrilla, Antonio Valero,
Isabel Fernández, Ernesto Sáez, F.M. Molino, Jesús Olivares
5.5.1 Introduction 147
5.5.2 Integration of canine units in the anti-poisoning strategy
of the Government of Andalucía 149
5.5.3 Use of forensic procedures and techniques in the fi eld
and the laboratory 151
5.5.4 Conclusions 155
5.6 Sociopolitical and rural infl uences on the management and monitoring
of carbofuran and its use to poison wildlife in Hungary 155
Péter Bedo“
5.6.1 Introduction 155
5.6.2 Incidents of carbofuran-related wildlife mortality in Hungary 156
5.6.3 Analysis of wildlife samples for poisons and other incidents
of poisoning in Hungary 156
5.6.4 Conclusions 157
5.7 Leisure-based human-wildlife confl icts arising from the introduction
of game species and repercussions to vultures across Croatia 157
Gordana Pavokovic
5.7.1 Introduction 157
5.7.2 Past registration and current use in Croatia 160
5.7.3 The use of carbofuran as a poison in relation to other compounds
in Croatia 160
5.7.4 Threats to biodiversity, livelihoods and tourism on the
Croatian islands 164
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CONTENTS ix
5.7.5 Nature protection and analytical capacity in Croatia 167
5.7.6 Recommended steps to address the current threat posed
by carbofuran 168
Acknowledgements 169
References 169
6 Perspectives on wildlife poisoning by carbofuran in the United Kingdom
and Republic of Ireland – with a particular focus on Scotland 171
6.1 An overview of the registration and withdrawal of carbofuran products 171
6.2 An overview of human-wildlife confl icts in the UK and ROI 173
6.3 The effect of carbofuran poisoning and other illegal persecution
methods on raptor populations in Scotland 174
Ruth E. Tingay
6.4 A landowner’s perspective on wildlife poisoning in Scotland 178
Douglas McAdam
6.5 Monitoring carbofuran abuse in Scotland 181
Michael J. Taylor
6.5.1 Introduction 181
6.5.2 The impact of carbofuran abuse in Scotland 182
6.5.3 Analytical methodology and recent developments 183
6.5.4 Conclusion and discussion 185
Acknowledgements 187
References 187
7 A Latin American perspective: the environmental impact of farming
wheat and rice treated with carbofuran and Rhodamine B on Brazilian
wild birds 189
Alexandre de Almeida and Álvaro Fernando de Almeida
7.1 Introduction 189
7.2 Materials and methods 192
7.3 Results and discussion: biological aspects of the environmental impact
caused by carbofuran and Rhodamine B on Brazilian wild birds 195
7.3.1 Alternatives and mitigation 200
7.3.2 Avian mortality and some aspects that infl uence this estimate 201
Acknowledgements 204
References 204
8 Impacts of carbofuran on birds in Canada and the United States 208
Pierre Mineau, Linda Lyon, Stella McMillin
8.1 Introduction and short registration history of carbofuran
in North America 208
8.2 Impacts from the sandcore (silica) granular formulations 210
8.2.1 Supervised fi eld trials and surveillance exercises 210
8.2.2 Reported incidents where the product was applied according
to label directions 214
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x CONTENTS
8.3 Impacts from the corncob granular formulation 222
8.3.1 Supervised fi eld trials 223
8.3.2 Reported incidents 224
8.4 Impacts from the fl owable (liquid) formulation 225
8.4.1 Industry-supervised fi eld trials 227
8.4.2 Field studies of carbofuran used as a grasshopper insecticide 230
8.4.3 Monitoring programmes in US cotton 234
8.4.4 Incidents 235
8.5 Evidence for secondary poisoning impacts with any formulation type 241
8.6 Impacts resulting from abuse cases regardless of formulation 242
8.7 Conclusions 243
Acknowledgements 243
References 244
9 Conclusions, recommendations and the way forward 251
Ngaio Richards
9.1 Wildlife mortality stemming from intentional misuse and legal/labelled
use of carbofuran 251
9.2 Overall recommendations and the way forward 253
9.2.1 Address and mitigate the root causes of human-wildlife confl ict 253
9.2.2 Increase grassroots educational initiatives 254
9.2.3 Enhance analytical capacity and increase sampling, testing
and monitoring efforts 254
9.2.4 Conduct studies in critical but currently under-represented subjects 255
9.2.5 Coordinate international monitoring and conservation efforts 256
9.2.6 Address outstanding policy and accountability issues 256
Appendix 260
References 261
Index 263
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Preface
Whatever you do will be insignifi cant, but it is very important that you do it
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
This book was initiated in 2009, in response to reports of wildlife mortality from fi eld colleagues
in India and Kenya that were tantamount to a distress signal. The unfortunate reality, however,
is that carbofuran has been poisoning wildlife for the better part of 40 years. Here, we explore
historic and very current incidents of wildlife mortality arising from both misuse (i.e., baiting and
intentional poisoning), and legal applications of the compound, to crops. The distinction is very
important because each issue elicits a certain response and requires a different approach; in the case
of intentional misuse, manufacturers can and do argue that they provide instructions on the product
label and that use in violation of these instructions (such as that detailed in Chapters 3 to 7) is outside
their remit. In theory, the risks posed by some compounds can be minimised by cracking down on
illegal use, by implementing proper management practice (which may include reducing a product’s
usage or concentration) or by adjusting use to take into consideration patterns of wildlife activity.
In practice, the application of such mitigative measures can be far more challenging. Chapter 7
(Latin America) outlines fi eld trials used to measure the effectiveness of mitigative measures
(i.e., gustative repellants, colouration and camoufl aging) in reducing the mortality of avian species
during agricultural applications of carbofuran. Although in this particular case the camoufl aging
method offered effective protection, other mitigative measures investigated did not. It was noteworthy
in this instance that the effectiveness of the gustative repellents was surpassed by the inherent toxicity
of the compound. In other words, birds that ingested seeds treated with gustative repellents were
poisoned before the repelling properties could even come into effect. In essence, carbofuran has the
unpleasant distinction of being so hazardous to wildlife that it simply cannot be effectively regulated or
managed accordingly without mortality. The case is made in Chapter 8 (which meticulously chronicles
mortality in the United States and Canada arising from labelled usage) that the sole condition under
which carbofuran can be safely applied is if an area is already entirely devoid of wildlife. This is why,
over and beyond efforts to address alternative management practices, there has been such a strong
movement to ban it.
Loss of livelihood or basic sustenance, and the decimation of wildlife species, many of them
emblematic and heavily tied to biological richness or tourism potential, all understandably bring
out powerful emotions in people. Cultural, socioeconomic and political factors further cloud the
use and misuse of carbofuran. To facilitate navigation through such issues, a key objective of this
book was to clearly lay out the incontrovertible facts about carbofuran, namely, its chemistry, mode
of action, environmental fate, the analytical methods used to detect it (all covered in Chapter 1), the
farming, agricultural practices and crops on which it is applied, and some of the laws and regulatory
mechanisms in place regarding it, from country to country.
A substantial body of sound analytical evidence has been gathered in the United Kingdom (Chapter 6)
and in the United States and Canada (Chapter 8). However, the reader will note the diffi culties that
even these ‘developed’ countries have had when it comes to reining in the use of carbofuran. Such
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