Canola. Chemistry, Production, Processing, and Utilization

370 Pages·2011·14.206 MB·English

by  James K. Daun, N A Michael Eskin, Dave Hickling

Canola
Chemistry,
Production,
Processing,
and Utilization
Editors
James K. Daun
N. A. Michael Eskin
Dave Hickling
AOCS Mission Statement
To be a global forum to promote the exchange of ideas, information, and experience, to enhance personal
excellence, and to provide high standards of quality among those with a professional interest in the science
and technology of fats, oils, surfactants, and related materials.
AOCS Books and Special Publications Committee
M. Mossoba, Chairperson, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland
M.L. Besemer, Besemer Consulting, Rancho Santa Margarita, California
W. Byrdwell, USDA, ARS, BHNRC, FCMDL, Beltsville, Maryland
P. Dutta, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
V. Huang, Yuanpei University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
L. Johnson, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
H. Knapp, Billings, Montana
G. Knothe, USDA, ARS, NCAUR, Peoria, Illinois
D. Kodali, Global Agritech Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota
G.R. List, USDA, NCAUR-Retired, Consulting, Peoria, Illinois
J.V. Makowski, Windsor Laboratories, Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania
T. McKeon, USDA, ARS, WRRC, Albany, California
R. Moreau, USDA, ARS, ERRC, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania
P. White, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
N. Widlak, ADM Cocoa, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
R. Wilson, USDA, REE, ARS, NPS, CPPVS-Retired, Beltsville, Maryland
Copyright © 2011 by AOCS Press, Urbana, IL 61802. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Canola : chemistry, production, processing, and utilization / editors, James K. Daun, N.A. Michael Eskin,
Dave Hickling.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Canola oil. 2. Plant lipids–Biotechnology. 3. Canola–Biotechnology. I. Daun, James K. II. Eskin,
N. A. Michael. III. Hickling, Dave. IV. Title.
TP248.65.P53C36 2011
664’.36--dc22
2010052421
Printed in the United States of America
15 14 13 12 11 5 4 3 2 1
Th e paper used in this book is acid-free, and falls within the guidelines established to ensure permanence
and durability.
Th is book is dedicated to
Dr. Baldur R. Stefansson and Dr. R. Keith Downey,
the fathers of canola.
Canola: Chemistry, Production, Processing, and Utilization
Preface
We are pleased to off er students, researchers, industry practitioners, and all who are
interested in the world’s second most important oilseed, a comprehensive book on
canola: Canola: Chemistry, Production, Processing, and Utilization. Th is is one of a
number of books in the AOCS Monograph Series on Oilseeds published by AOCS
Press of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. Th ese books present the latest detailed
information on plant sources of fats, oils, and protein meals that are essential for
feeding the world and providing the many bio-based products we consume every day.
Canola is complex in nature and includes seed from several species—Brassica
napus L., Brassica rapa L. and Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. Th e use of these species as a
source of oil has a long history dating back at least 4000 years. Th e history of canola,
however, is more recent and dates from the early 1970’s when the fatty acid composition
and glucosinolate content of rapeseed was changed resulting in canola, today’s source
of healthy oil and nutritious protein meal. Canola has been known as “the Cinderella
crop,” rising from rapeseed, a relatively minor oilseed, to become the world’s second
most produced oilseed and the third largest source of oil. Th e health benefi ts of canola
oil have been recognized by several leading associations as well as by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration, which allows a health claim for this oil, making it unique
among the major oils in world production. Canola is also fl exible in nature, able to be
used as a food oil, as biodiesel, and especially, as high erucic acid rapeseed (HEAR),
for oleochemicals. Canola is one of the crops most amenable to biotechnological
transformation, and almost anything is possible. While canola was developed in
Canada, research on the brassica oilseeds has been carried out worldwide. Th e authors
of this work have included information not only from Canada but also from many
other countries in which rapeseed and canola are grown.
Th is book has been designed as a complete reference source for this crop, from the
information contained in the chapters to the reference sources included. Some chap-
ters in the book are modeled on several earlier works, in particular Appelqvist, L. A. &
Ohlson, R.; Rapeseed: cultivation, composition, processing, and utilization; Elsevier Pub-
lishing Co., New York, 1972, a book that still has value as a reference for rapeseed
crops. Th e editors have a combined 150 years experience working with rapeseed and
canola and have carefully chosen the contributing authors to give a blend of experi-
ence and new ideas.
ix
1
Origin, Distribution, and Production
James K. Daun
AgriAnalytical Consulting, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Introduction
Canola and rapeseed belong to one of the most widespread of cultivated plants—the
Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae). Th e crops of this plant family are remarkable for their
diversity in morphology and in use. People probably began using them originally as
potherbs because of their pungent fl avor. Cultivation and selection led to the devel-
opment of the common brassica vegetables of today, including cabbage, caulifl ower,
turnip, brussels sprouts, and radishes and their relatives.
All brassicas produce small, round seeds in siliques or pods, but they diff er enor-
mously in seasonality, morphology, seed size, seed color, and chemical composition. Th e
seeds are used as a source of vegetable oil, protein meal, and as a spice. Th e uses of the oil
and meal vary greatly. Th e oil may be used for edible oils, fi ne chemicals, effi cient fuels,
and lubricants. Meal uses range from fertilizer to high-quality animal feed or functional
protein. Th e seed itself is used as a spice or condiment and as a high-energy animal feed.
Although this book will focus on canola, some attention will also be given to other
brassica species that are used as oilseeds, especially those in the rapeseed and mustard
group. All brassicas cultivated for use of the seed oil are sometimes referred to as “rape-
seed,” whereas the brassica plants cultivated for using the seeds as spice are often sum-
marized under the name “mustard.” Within the brassica oilseeds canola is defi ned as
brassica species having a seed oil that must conta in less than 2% erucic acid, and the
solid component of the seed must contain less than 30 μmol of any one or any mixture of
3-butenyl glucosinolate, 4-pentenyl glucosinolate, 2-hydroxy-3-butenyl glucosinolate,
and 2-hydroxy-4-pentenyl glucosinolate per gram of air-dry, oil-free solid (Canola
Council of Canada, 2009). Rapeseed and mustard are general terms and may vary in
their defi nition depending on the part of the world in which they occur (Table 1.1).
Brassica napus L. (Fig. 1.1), Brassica rapa (campestris) L. (with the three subspecies oleif-
era, trilocularis, and dichotoma) (Fig. 1.1), Brassica juncea (L). Czern. (Fig. 1.1), Brassica
carinata A. Braun, and Eruca sativa (Mill.) are all species included in the defi nition of
rapeseed and mustard grown for the purpose of obtaining vegetable oil (ISO, 2002).
1
22 J.K. Daun
Table 1.1. Common Names for Rapeseed and Mustard.
Systematic Name Common Names
Chinese: ganlanxing youcai; Danish: Raps; Dutch:
koolzaad; Estonian: raps; English: rape, oil rape, oilseed
rape, swede rape, Argentine rape (Canada), canola
Brassica napus L.
(Canada); French: colza, navette; Finnish: rapsi; German:
ssp. napus, winter
Raps, Ölraps; Hindi: gobhi sarson; Italian: cavolo colza,
or summer
napo oleifera, Colza; Japanese: seiyou aburana, natane;
Polish: rzepak; Portuguese: Colza; Russian: raps; Spanish:
colza, nabo, nabo colza; Swedish: Raps
Chinese: baicaixing youcai; Baica; Danish: Rybs;
Dutch: raap, raapzaad, voederwinterraapzaad; Finnish:
rypsi; Estonian: ölinaeris; English: biennial turnip rape,
Brassica rapa L. (syn. rapeseed, turnip rape, bird rape, winter turnip rape, canola
B. campestris) ssp. (Canada), Polish rape (Canada); French: navette, navette
oleifera (DC.) Metzg., de Chine, navette d’hiver; German: Rübsen, Winterrübsen;
winter or summer Italian: Ravizzone, Rapa; Japanese: aburana, natane;
Polish: kapusta wlasciwa olejowa; Portuguese: nabita,
nabo silvestre; Spanish: nabo de invierno, nabina;
Swedish: rybs.
Brassica rapa L. ssp. English: spring turnip rape, Indian rape, brown sarson,
dichotoma (Roxb.) toria; French: navette de printemps; German: toria; Hindi:
hanelt, summer kaalii sarason, torii, lahi, Òwjh ljlksa Bhoori sarson
Brassica rapa L. ssp.
English: yellow sarson, Indian colza; French: sarson;
trilocularis (Roxb.)
German: sarson; Hindi: peeli sarson, peesi sarson
hanelt, summer type
Chinese: jiecaixing youcai; Czech: brukev sítinovitá;
English: brown mustard, Indian mustard, oriental mustard
(Canada); French: moutarde brune, moutarde jonciforme,
chou des Indes; Finnish: mustasinappi; German: Brauner
Senf, Indischer Senf, Sareptasenf; Hebrew: kruv samrani;
Hungarian: indiai mustár; Hindi: rai, ryada, raya, laha,
Brassica juncea (L.)
lahta, sasve, g; Italian: senape indiana, senape bruna;
Czern. ssp. juncea,
Japanese: karashina, seiyou karashina; Khmer: Khat naa,
summer
laoatian kaad khièw; Malay: biji sawi, sawi, sawi pahit;
Nepalese: asal raaii, laahaa; Polish: kapusta sitowata;
Portuguese: mostarda indiana; Russian: gorchítsa
sareptskaya; Spanish: mostaza de la China, mostaza de
la India, mostaza hindu; Tagalog: mustasa; Thai: phakkat
khieo, phakkat khieopli; Turkish: yaprak hardal
Region of Origin
To understand the origin of rapeseed, it is useful to have an understanding of the
relationship between the diff erent seed oil species belonging to the genus Brassica
(Fig. 1.2). Th e “triangle of U,” named after the Japanese scientist who fi rst illustrated
Origin, Distribution, and Production 33
Fig. 1.1. Botanical drawings of the major species included in canola. 1.1a. Brassica napus L.
ssp. napus: (b) lower cauline leaf; (c) fruiting stem; (d) fl ower; (e) fl ower, p etals removed; and
(f) seeds. 1.1b. Brassica rapa L. ssp. oleifera (DC.) Metzg: (a) fl owering stem; (b) lower cauline
leaf; and (c) siliqua. 1.1c. (a) fl owering stem with young fruits; (b) lower cauline leaf; (c) fl ower;
(d) siliqua. Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. ssp. juncea. Source: Cruciferae: Brassica and Raphanus,
2001, pp 1435-1465 and 1476-1481, Hanelt P. and Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant
Research, Diederichsen A., Figs. 101, 102, 103, 104a, 104b, 104, 105, 106, 107, and 108. With
kind permission of Springer Science+Business Media.
44 J.K. Daun
Fig. 1.2. The “triangle of U” (U, 1935) showing the genetic relationship between the diff erent
brassica species.
it, shows three basic species, B. nigra, B. oleracea, and B. rapa (campestris), with
chromosome numbers 8, 9, and 10 on the corners of the triangle. Hybridization
between these species gave rise to the other species, B. carinata, B. juncea, and B. napus
(U, 1935). Although this hybridization can be made artifi cially, the actual hybridiza-
tion was done by nature many years ago.
Th e brassica family is concentrated in temperate areas with its maximum diversity
in the Mediterranean, North Africa region. Th e origin of the diff erent cultivated spe-
cies is not clear (Kimber & McGregor, 1995). Th e small seed size coupled with oil and
protein content make them attractive to birds and thus they are easily spread as birds
migrate and move. B. rapa is believed to be the oldest of the species because it has
the widest distribution. Over 2000 years ago it could be found from Europe across to
China and Korea and from Norway to north of the Sahara and into India. Europe and
the Himilayan areas of India have been proposed as centers of origin (McNaugtton,
1976a). B. napus is derived from a hybridization of B. rapa and B. oleracea. Th e origin
of B. oleracea is likely the Mediterranean area, although wild populations occur on the
coasts of Britain and the Bay of Biscay (McNaugtton, 1976b). It is believed that B.
napus originated in southern Europe and was introduced into Asia in the early 18th
century. Th e Middle East and central Asia and China have been suggested as sites of
origin for B. juncea (Prakash & Chopra, 1996) and independent hybridization at the
secondary centers of India, China, and the Caucasus possibly occurred. Th e center
of origin for B. nigra is thought to be the Middle East (Hemingway, 1976; Sauer,
1993), but this crop was used as a spice from very early times and it probably travelled
quickly to secondary centers. B. carinata is believed to have originated in Northeast
Origin, Distribution, and Production 55
Africa, where the B. nigra and B. oleracea species overlapped. Eruca sativa probably
originated in India and also moved to China. It is still grown as an oilseed crop in
both areas; whereas, in other parts of the world it is grown as a spice or vegetable crop
(rocket salad or arugula).
History of Use
Brassica plants were probably fi rst used as potherbs and vegetables and their seeds fi rst
used as spices and condiments because of their hot fl avor. Neolithic evidence suggests
that B. nigra seeds probably joined agriculture as volunteer weeds in wheat and barley
fi elds. It was probably the use of seeds as spices or potherbs that resulted in some of
the migration of these species around the world, although the presence of adventi-
tious admixtures of B. nigra in cereal grains was the mechanism by which this crop,
and possibly other brassica seeds, reached the New World at the time of the Spanish
Conquest.
Utilization of brassica crops as a source of vegetable oil probably occurred much
later than their use as a spice, potherb, or vegetable. Th ere is defi nite evidence of the
utilization of brassica plants in Neolithic times. Carbon dating of rapeseed from the
Banpo excavation in Xian, China, suggests that the earliest cultivation of rapeseed in
China may date back as much as 7000 years. Evidence of the use of mustard crops
occurs in Sanskrit writings from as far back as 1500 BC and Chinese writings as
far back as 1122 BC. Th e use of mustard as a condiment and medicine is noted by
European sources such as Pythagoras, Hippocrates, and Pliny with the earliest being
about 500 BC.
B. rapa varieties, especially toria and sarson types, were probably the fi rst brassicas
grown as sources of oil. Sarson has been an important oilseed crop in India since at
least 1500 BC. Th e oilseed types were probably introduced into China from India
and from thence into Japan via the Korean peninsula. In China, the province of
Gansu and surrounding areas were probably the fi rst point where brassica seeds were
cultivated and is a likely point of origin for B. rapa and possibly B. juncea. It still is a
source of many wild brassica types.
Asia
Evidence that brassica seeds had been pressed for oil in India has been found in
archaeological excavations dating back to 2000 BC. Sanskrit literature mentions an
oil press as early as 500 BC but does not describe it (Achaya, 1994). A mortar and
pestle system to press oilseeds and sugar cane (known today as the ghani [kolhu or
chekku]) may date as far back as 1500 BC. Certainly a picture on a 13th century
temple (Fig. 1.3) suggests that by 1200 the technology had been well established.
Although the ghani was probably fi rst used to extract oil from sesame seeds, its use on
rapeseeds and mustard has a very long history. Th e use of village ghanis to obtain oil
66 J.K. Daun
Fig. 1.3. Ghani processing of rapeseed in 13th century India. Source: http://www.fao.org/
docrep/t4660t/t4660t04.jpg.
continued at least until the end of the 20th century but has declined despite govern-
ment subsidies. Recently India and Pakistan invested heavily in the use of small-scale
expellers in villages.
In China, although cultivation of brassicas for vegetable, herb, and condiment use
has a very long history, extraction of the oil from the seeds occurred relatively recently,
possibly as late as the 17th century CE. Th is is because the oil needed for cooking or
lighting could easily be obtained from the relatively abundant supplies of animal fat
(Huang, 2000). In Japan, oil pressing from hazelnuts (Corylus L.) and perilla (Perilla
frutescens (L.) Britt.) and rapeseed date back to about the 3rd century CE. Wedge
presses developed in Japan and China were commonly used by as early as the 10th
century (Nagtsune, 1836).
Traditional brassica oilseeds in China, Japan, and the Indian subcontinent were
B. rapa and B. juncea. B. napus was introduced to Japan in 1887, presumably from
Europe during the period of industrialization in Japan.
China
Before the 1930s, the area of production devoted to rapeseed in China was similar
to that in India. From 1934 to 1935, rapeseed plantings reached 2.5 to 3.5 million
ha with the yield of 300–375 kg/ha using mostly landrace varieties of B. rapa and
B. juncea. In 1934 to 1935, Japanese B. napus from Korea and in 1941 B. napus from
the United Kingdom was introduced. In the period 1942–1948, a few papers on