Regulation of virulence‐associated traits of the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans by nitrogen availability Regulation Virulenz‐assoziierter Faktoren im humanpathogenen Pilz Candida albicans durch Stickstoffverfügbarkeit Doctoral thesis for a doctoral degree at the Graduate School of Life Sciences (GSLS), University of Würzburg Section: Infection and Immunity Submitted by Nico Dunkel from Dresden, Germany Würzburg, 2013 Submitted on: Members of the Supervisory Committee: Chairperson: Prof. Dr. Thomas Dandekar Primary Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Joachim Morschhäuser Supervisor (Second): Prof. Dr. Sven Krappmann Supervisor (Third): Prof. Dr. Roy Gross Supervisor (Fourth) (if applicable): Date of Public Defense: Date of receipt of Certificate: Eingereicht am: Mitglieder des Promotionskomitees: Vorsitzender: Prof. Dr. Thomas Dandekar 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Joachim Morschhäuser 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Sven Krappmann 3. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Roy Gross 4. Gutachter (falls zutreffend): Tag des Promotionskolloqiums: Doktorurkunde ausgehändigt am: Affidavit I hereby confirm that my thesis entitled “Regulation of virulence‐associated traits of the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans by nitrogen availability” is the result of my own work. I did not receive any help or support from commercial consultants. All sources and/or materials applied are listed and specified in the thesis Furthermore, I confirm that this thesis has not been submitted as a part of another examination process neither in identical nor similar form. Würzburg, 15 July, 2013 Nico Dunkel Eidesstattliche Erklärung Hiermit erkläre ich an Eides statt, die Dissertation „Regulation Virulenz‐assoziierter Faktoren im humanpathogenen Pilz Candida albicans durch Stickstoffverfügbarkeit“ eigenständig, d.h. insbesondere selbständig und ohne Hilfe eines kommerziellen Promotionsberaters, angefertigt und keine anderen als die von mir angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel verwndet zu haben. Ich erkläre außerdem, dass die Dissertation weder in gleicher noch in ähnlicher Form bereits in einem anderem Prüfungsverfahren vorgelegen hat. Würzburg, 15 Juli 2013 Nico Dunkel Acknowledgments Hereby I express my deep sense of gratitude to my doctoral supervisor Prof. Dr. Joachim Morschhäuser for his sublime guidance and paramount support. I also deeply thank the members of my Supervisory Committee, Prof. Dr. Sven Krappmann and Prof. Dr. Roy Gross, for their supportive suggestions and valuable help during my dissertation. Moreover, I gratefully appreciate the affiliation at the Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, under direction of Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Jörg Hacker and Prof. Dr. Jörg Vogel, which gave me the chance to discuss and socialize with remarkable scientists. Further I thank the Graduate School of Life Sciences (GSLS) for providing an excellent research and education environment that strongly promoted my scientific skills. I am also indepted to Tina Schäfer, who thoroughly helped me with the mouse experiments, and Dr. Oliver Reuss, Dr. Christoph Sasse, Renate Franz, and Tobias Hertlein, who generated the peptide transporter mutant strains. Moreover, I owe special thanks to Prof. Dr. Martine Raymond and her group at the IRIC (Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer), Université de Montréal, Canada, for the unique chance to perform ChIP‐on‐chip experiments and the wonderful time I had. Especially, I cherish the exceptional supervision by Sandra Weber and the pleasing conversations with Fatiha Louhichi. I further yield thanks to all former and present members of the Candida working group who accompanied my dissertation, particularly (in alphabetical order) Anna‐Lena, Benjamin, Bernardo, Christa, Christina, Christoph, Dagmar, Eva, Fatima, Heide, Irene, Jens, Julia, Kristina, Michael, Sabrina Schneider, Sabrina Schubert, Selene, Srisuda, Sven, Tina, and Rebecca for a splendid time in and outside the laboratory. I feel also blessed to have such a wonderful family behind myself, who supported me financially and mentaly during the ups and downs of my PhD thesis. From the bottom of my heart I thank my magnificient fiancée Lisa for her love and patience with me over the years. Danksagung Hiermit drücke ich meine tiefste Dankbarkeit gegenüber meinem Doktorvater Prof. Dr. Joachim Morschhäuser aus, für seine großartige Anleitung und hervorragende Unterstützung. Ich danke weiterhin meinen Komiteemitgliedern, Prof. Dr. Sven Krappmann and Prof. Dr. Roy Gross, für ihre unterstützenden Vorschläge und wertvolle Hilfe während meiner Promotion. Des Weiteren schätze ich die Zugehörigkeit am Institut für Molekulare Infektionsbiologie, unter der Leitung von Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Jörg Hacker and Prof. Dr. Jörg Vogel, welches mir die Chance ermöglichte aussergewöhnliche Wissenschaftler kennenzulernen. Ausserdem danke ich der Graduate School of Life Sciences (GSLS) für die Bereitstellung einer exzellenten Forschungs‐ und Bildungsumgebung, welche meine wissenschaftlichen Fähigkeiten stark gefördert haben. Zu großem Dank verpflichtet bin ich auch Dr. Tina Schäfer für die tolle Hilfe bei der Durchführung der Mausexperimente und Dr. Oliver Reuss, Dr. Christoph Sasse, Renate Franz und Tobias Hertlein, für die Herstellung der Peptidtransportermutanten. Insbesondere danke ich Prof. Dr. Martine Raymond und ihrer Arbeitsgruppe am IRIC (Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer), Université de Montréal, Kanada, für die einmalige Möglichkeit ChIP‐on‐chip Experimente durchzuführen und für die wundervolle Zeit. Spezielle Wertschätzung gilt dabei der außergewöhnlichen Betreuung durch Sandra Weber und den angenehmen Gesprächen mit Fatiha Louhichi. Besonderer Dank gilt auch allen ehemaligen und aktuellen Mitgliedern der Candida‐ Arbeitsgruppe, die mich während meiner Promotion begleitet haben, speziell (in alphabetischer Reihenfolge) Anna‐Lena, Benjamin, Bernardo, Christa, Christina, Christoph, Dagmar, Eva, Fatima, Heide, Irene, Jens, Julia, Kristina, Michael, Sabrina Schneider, Sabrina Schubert, Selene, Srisuda, Sven, Tina, und Rebecca für eine blendende Zeit innerhalb und außerhalb des Labors. Zu guter Letzt fühle ich mich gesegnet eine solch wundervolle Familie zu haben, die mich immer, sowohl finanziell als auch mental während aller Hochs und Tiefs meiner Promotion, unterstützt haben. Aus tiefstem Herzen danke ich meiner großartigen Verlobten Lisa für ihre Liebe und ihre Geduld mit mir über die Jahre. Dedicated to my parents Gewidmet meinen Eltern Created with www.wordle.net Content Summary Zusammenfassung 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Candida albicans .......................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Genetics ....................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Drug resistance ............................................................................................................ 5 1.4 Adherence .................................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Biofilm formation ......................................................................................................... 6 1.6 Morphogenesis ............................................................................................................ 7 1.7 Secreted hydrolytic enzymes ..................................................................................... 11 1.8 Stress response .......................................................................................................... 16 1.9 Metabolic adaption ................................................................................................... 18 1.10 Nitrogen regulation ................................................................................................ 19 1.11 Aim of this study .................................................................................................... 28 2 Results .............................................................................................................................. 29 2.1 Stp1, a transcriptional regulator required for growth on proteins ........................... 29 2.1.1 Construction of the HA‐tagged transcriptional regulator Stp1 .......................... 29 2.1.2 HA‐tagged Stp1 is a functional transcription factor ........................................... 30 2.1.3 Genome‐wide binding of Stp1‐HA to target sequences .................................... 31 2.2 Sap2, a major secreted aspartic protease ................................................................. 37 2.2.1 Protease dependent growth on proteins as sole nitrogen source .................... 37 2.2.1.1 Growth of different sap mutants with BSA as sole nitrogen source .......... 37 2.2.1.2 DSY459 is homozygous for chromosome R ................................................ 39 2.2.1.3 Reintroduction of the SAP2‐2 allele restored growth of DSY459 ............... 42 2.2.1.4 Homozygosity for chromosome R and SAP2‐1 is sufficient to result in a growth defect with proteins as sole nitrogen source .................................................. 45 2.2.1.5 Lack of the SAP2‐2 allele is sufficient to result in a growth defect with proteins as sole nitrogen source .................................................................................. 46 2.2.2 SAP2 promoter deletion analysis ....................................................................... 49 2.2.2.1 Defining SAP2 regulatory sequences .......................................................... 50 2.2.2.2 SAP2 expression analysis ............................................................................ 51 2.2.2.3 SAP2‐2 is induced earlier and better than SAP2‐1 ...................................... 51 2.2.2.4 Construction of deleted SAP2‐1 promoters ................................................ 53 2.2.2.5 Construction deleted SAP2‐2 promoters .................................................... 56 2.2.2.6 SAP2 expression is controlled by distinct promoter elements ................... 59 2.2.2.7 SAP2 expression is induced independent of Stp1 ...................................... 63 2.3 Transporter‐mediated peptide uptake ...................................................................... 65 2.3.1 Growth on amino acids as sole nitrogen source ................................................ 66 2.3.2 Contribution of different transporters to the growth with BSA as sole nitrogen source ............................................................................................................................ 67 2.3.3 Contribution of different transporters to the growth with defined peptides as sole nitrogen source ......................................................................................................... 68 2.3.4 Growth rate determination ................................................................................ 72 2.3.5 Impact of peptide‐uptake deficiency on in vitro fitness .................................... 73 2.3.6 Impact of peptide‐uptake deficiency on in vivo fitness ..................................... 75 2.4 Control of the expression of virulence‐associated traits by ammonium .................. 77 2.4.1 Various ammonium concentrations repress Sap2 expression to various degrees ............................................................................................................................ 77 2.4.2 Ammonium uptake is required to repress SAP2 expression .............................. 79 2.4.3 Ammonium uptake is required to repress OPT3 expression ............................. 82 2.4.4 Ammonium uptake is required to repress DAL1 and DUR3 expression ............ 84 2.4.5 Ammonium uptake is required to repress arginine‐induced filamentation ...... 86
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