Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography: Revision Guide

224 Pages·2013·7.4 MB·English

Cambridge
International AS and A Level
Geography
Garrett Nagle & Paul Guinness
To Angela, Rosie, Patrick and Bethany
Hodder Education, an Hachette UK company, 338 Euston Road, London NW1 3BH
Orders
Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 4SB
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Get the most from this book
Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy,
but it is essential to review your work, learn it and test your My revision planner
understanding. This Revision Guide will help you to do
Paper 1 Core Geography
that in a planned way, topic by topic. Use this book as the Revised Tested Exam
cornerstone of your revision and don’t hesitate to write in it 1P hHyysdicroalo Cgoyr aend fluvial geomorphology ready
— personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking 97 1.12 TRhaein fdarlal–indaisgceh abragsein r eslyastieomns h. .i.p. .s. .w. . . i.t.h. . .in. . .d. . r. .a. .in. . a. .g. .e. . .b. .a. .s. .in. . s. . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . .■
off each section as you revise. 151 1.43 TRhive rh cuhmaann eiml praocte .s. .s.e. .s. .a. .n. .d. . . l.a. .n. .d. . f. .o. .r.m. . .s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
2 Atmosphere and weather
19 2.1 Local energy budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
23 2.2 The global energy budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
28 2.3 Weather processes and phenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
33 2.4 The human impact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
Tick to track your progress 3 Rocks and weathering
327 .32.1 ElTemhenteary pglatleo tecbtonaicsl. . . .e. . . . .n. . . . .e. . . . .r. . .g. . . . .y. . . . . . .b. . . . .u. . . . .d. . .■g. . .e. . . . .t. . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to plan your 4 0 3.2 Weathering and rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
4 4 3.3 Slope processes and development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you have: 4L9a ti3t.u4d Tihnea hl uvmaarnia itmiopancst .i.n. . . .r. .a. .d. . .i.a. . .t.i. .o. .n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R.■evised
HAutmmoasnp hCeorirce energy
l revised and understood a topic 4T hPeo aptmuolsapthieoren is an open energy system receiving energy from both Sun and
5 E4ar th.4 A.1lt hNoautguh rtahle i lnatctrer ais eve rays sam aclol, mit hpaos naen nimt poofr tpaontp luoclalt ieoffnec ct,h aas ning teh e.■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
l tested yourself
56Tc18ahs er eo 4af .ru32er biPmDaonepp omcrultiomalangatr ievaosapn.r iIha–ntircicoeo nstmsro aiung rts chsieteoi loraernc ler a.aip.td.it.io a.o.tn.fi. os. o.hn.l.ia .pirs. .sr.ae.d.f.ei.ar.tr.ie.o.dn. . t.wo. . i.ta.hs. .il.an.t.si.to.u.l.da.e.t. ia.o.n.n.d. . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
l practised the exam-style questions 5 6
osne6 reaM g csaotilnid4gv e(.rF4r .ao i gTnTtuoeihr o eaec tn2h t.m3 ihe)ev.a Te pn htoahel eigsrse eb. sHumaloate nwiscne eavt n eto hri,m efn hbenioatalhraiteznuorc rnreaet: gapl ilo itnsnriact inisrv segf eaebrtsu toeidnf. g.e. np.t.e r.iron.g.g .ytr.h e.fe.sr.os .timv.r.oe. lp.ty.hi .che.s.o ,. t. t. .e.r. . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
6e9qu ato5r.1 to M thieg rpaotleios tna kaes pal acoe mbyp woindesn atn do of cpeaonp cuulraretniotsn. T chhisa gnivgese r .is. .e. .t.o. . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
Y
toopui cc ahne aadlsinog k iene pth ter abcoko okf. yYour mreavyis ifoinnd b ity htieclkpifnugl tooff aedadc h 678bain317 esS t oiwmelaetp5eito.nl432nr etl .oaAImnw t c elesaentrcsintoeu an dstlde tiy msoue nandinegaydrgml a9hoym0 itfigbSic hiouigsn dnlartgta e.ei.tr.u i.niodn. .aen .ts.th. it.eo. .an .ct.aom. .ml. o.m.ps.pe.i.h.ng.es.ra.ra.et.e t.– .i.fo. ot. h.nr. ed. . ih.f.foe. .r.eiz.n.o.cn.e.t.sa. l.i n.t. r.ga.ln.o.sb.f.ea.rl. . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
your own notes as you work through each topic. 8 8
9824 6.132 CTUhrbaena cngh eatsrn eigni ndrugs r asantlr dsue c6its0tsuSluerem3s 0o eSofn0f u tusr.rb.b.a.a.n.n. .si.se.a. t.t.t.il.oe. .nm. . .e. .n. .t. .s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
97 6.4 The management of urban se3t0tNlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
90S 60N
60S 90N
Paper 2 3A0Sdv0anced Physical GeographEqyui nOoxptions
7
1 0 T4r o7p.1i cTarol peincavli r3co0liNmn6ma0tNe9ns0.t.N.s. . . . . . .S.o. l.s.t.ic. .eE.q. .u.i.n.o.S.xo. .l.s.ti.c.e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R. .e.■vise. .d. . . . . . . . . . . . .T. .e■ste.d. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rE.e■xadmy
1
1
1 Twts10huh40h7emeo amvleba7e nrg.iroa432,lo trw imboSThenarur,esl olna ysos pthdfsa uiaisgcmoyihnlaliai gnalrh g mbrlet a nolcldaonueoisa nt adtstmti soyfmf onosaor ftrw sn2ermpai4athmdh egshi arlso.aet. iut.o. mir.tTnsu.h .deri.esae.n c.c aae.hst.nis v .dudo.ea.m ds.fy e.p .a.at.sir .oto.hn.ne.p e. fp.oxi.copr. al.tea.hlsi.n e .ies .n .n . .v. .i.r.o. .n. .m. . .e. .n. .t. .s. . . . . . . . .■. .E. .x
hMa. n.pe.adm.ek. .weirs. pt.isn.u h.tr.eeie.rrp. ■e wi nthh te.ah.nt.e .ty .sao.o.luk.u. inrt. e.hg.fe .ea.rr.bn .to .o■ou rmt n soounrmtthhmes re–nr
Source: Barry, R. and Chorley, R., Atmosphere, Weather and Climate, Routledge, 1998 it is easy to forget that if it is summer in
4 CamFigburried 2g.3e S Ienastoenranl antdio lantiatuld AinSal avanridat iAon sL ienv ineslo Glateioongraphy Revision Guide one hemisphere it is winter in the other.
Now test yourself
11 What does insolation stand for?
12 When does the South Pole receive most insolation (Figure 2.3)?
13 How much insolation does 80°N receive in December and January.
Answers on p.00
Features to help you succeed
Pressure variations Revised
Sea-level pressure conditions show marked differences between the
hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere there are greater seasonal contrasts
Expert tip whereas in the southern hemisphere more stable average conditions exist
Ex(aFigumre 2.4). T-hes diftfereyncesl aere lar geqly reulated eto usneqtuali doistribnutions of land
Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on and pserae,s sbuercea vuasrei aotcioenasn. areas are much more equable in terms of temperature
how to maximise your chances.
Exam-style questions are provided for eacPhap etro 1 pCoirce G. eUogsraeph y 23
them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam
181487_s02_kCamil_1l9s-36.i ndd 23 24/10/12 7:01 PM
Definitions and key words
Exam ready
Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are
provided on the page where they appear.
Key words from the syllabus are highlighted in bold for
Now test yourself
you throughout the book.
These short, knowledge-based questions provide the first
step in testing your learning. Answers are at the back of
Typical mistake
the book.
Advice is given on how to avoid the typical mistakes Tested
students often make.
Latitude
2 Atmosphere and weather
J F M A M J J A S O N D
My revision planner
Paper 1 Core Geography
Revised Tested Exam
Physical Core ready
1 Hydrology and fluvial geomorphology
7 1.1 The drainage basin system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
9 1.2 Rainfall–discharge relationships within drainage basins . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
11 1.3 River channel processes and landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
15 1.4 The human impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
2 Atmosphere and weather
19 2.1 Local energy budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
23 2.2 The global energy budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
28 2.3 Weather processes and phenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
33 2.4 The human impact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
3 Rocks and weathering
37 3.1 Elementary plate tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
40 3.2 Weathering and rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
4 4 3.3 Slope processes and development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
49 3.4 The human impact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
Human Core
4 Population
54 4.1 Natural increase as a component of population change. . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
58 4.2 Demographic transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
62 4.3 Population–resource relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
67 4.4 The management of natural increase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
5 Migration
69 5.1 Migration as a component of population change . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
73 5.2 Internal migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
77 5.3 International migration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
81 5.4 A case study of international migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
6 Settlement dynamics
84 6.1 Changes in rural settlements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
88 6.2 Urban trends and issues of urbanisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
92 6.3 The changing structure of urban settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
97 6.4 The management of urban settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
Paper 2 Advanced Physical Geography Options
Revised Tested Exam
7 Tropical environments ready
1 04 7.1 Tropical climates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 07 7.2 Tropical ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 10 7.3 Tropical landforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 14 7.4 Sustainable management of tropical environments . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
4 Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography Revision uG ide
Revised Tested Exam
ready
8 Coastal environments
1 16 8.1 Waves, marine and sub-aerial processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 20 8.2 Coastal landforms of cliffed and constructive coasts. . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 24 8.3 Coral reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 27 8.4 Sustainable development of coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
9 Hazardous environments
1 30 9.1 H azardous environments resulting from crustal
(tectonic) movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 33 9.2 H azardous environments resulting from mass
movements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 36 9.3 Hazards resulting from atmospheric disturbances. . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 39 9.4 Sustainable management in hazardous environments. . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
10 Arid and semi-arid environments
1 42 10.1 T he distribution and climatic characteristics of hot
arid and semi-arid environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 45 10.2 Processes producing desert landforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 48 10.3 Soils and vegetation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 51 10.4 S ustainable management of arid and semi-arid
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
Paper 3 Advanced Human Geography Options
Revised Tested Exam
11 Production, location and change ready
1 54 11.1 Agricultural systems and food production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 58 11.2 The management of agricultural change: Jamaica . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 60 11.3 Manufacturing and related service industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 64 11.4 The management of industrial change: India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
12 Environmental management
1 67 12.1 Sustainable energy supplies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 72 12.2 The management of energy supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 74 12.3 Environmental degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 79 12.4 The management of a degraded environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
13 Global interdependence
1 82 13.1 Trade flows and trading patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 86 13.2 Debt and aid and their management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 91 13.3 The development of international tourism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
1 96 13.4 The management of a tourist destination: Jamaica. . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
14 Economic transition
1 99 14.1 National development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
2 03 14.2 The globalisation of industrial activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
2 08 14.3 Regional development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
2 11 14.4 The management of development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .■
My revision planner 5
Countdown to my exams
6–8 weeks to go 1 week to go
l Start by looking at the syllabus — make sure you l Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of
know exactly what material you need to revise an entire past paper and seek feedback from your
and the style of the examination. Use the revision teacher, comparing your work closely with the
planner on pages 4 and 5 to familiarise yourself mark scheme.
with the topics. l Check the revision planner to make sure you
l Organise your notes, making sure you have haven’t missed out any topics. Brush up on any
covered everything on the syllabus. The revision areas of difficulty by talking them over with a
planner will help you to group your notes into friend or getting help from your teacher.
topics. l Attend any revision classes put on by your
l Work out a realistic revision plan that will allow teacher. Remember, he or she is an expert at
you time for relaxation. Set aside days and times preparing people for examinations.
for all the subjects that you need to study, and
R evised
stick to your timetable.
l Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision
down into focused sessions of around 40 minutes, The day before the examination
divided by breaks. This Revision Guide organises
the basic facts into short, memorable sections to l Flick through this Revision Guide for useful
make revising easier. reminders, for example the expert tips, typical
mistakes and key terms.
R evised
l Check the time and place of your examination.
l Make sure you have everything you need — extra
pens and pencils, tissues, a watch, bottled water,
sweets.
l Allow some time to relax and have an early
4–6 weeks to go night to ensure you are fresh and alert for the
examinations.
l Read through the relevant sections of this book
R evised
and refer to the expert tips, typical mistakes and
key terms. Tick off the topics as you feel confident
about them. Highlight those topics you find My exams
difficult and look at them again in detail.
l Test your understanding of each topic by working Paper 1
through the ‘Now test yourself’ questions in the
Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
book. Look up the answers at the back of the
book. Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l Make a note of any problem areas as you revise, Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
and ask your teacher to go over these in class.
Paper 2
l Look at past papers. They are one of the best
ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
or prepare planned answers to the exam-style Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
questions provided in this book. Check your
Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
answers with your teacher.
l Try different revision methods. For example, you Paper 3
can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
or flash cards.
Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l Track your progress using the revision planner and
give yourself a reward when you have achieved Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
your target.
R evised
6 Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography Revision uG ide
1 H ydrology and fluvial
geomorphology
1.1 The drainage basin system
The drainage basin system Revised
A drainage basin is a natural system with inputs, flows and stores of water
and sediment. Every drainage basin is unique, on account of its climate, geology, A drainage basin refers to the area
vegetation, soil types, size, shape and human activities. The drainage basin drained by a river and its tributaries.
system is an open system as it allows the movement of energy and matter Hydrology is the study of water as it
across its boundaries. moves on, and under and through the
Earth’s surface.
The hydrological cycle refers to the cycle of water between atmosphere, The water cycle or hydrological
lithosphere and biosphere. Water can be stored at a number of stages or levels cycle is the movement of water
within the cycle (Figure 1.1). These stores include vegetation, surfaces, soil between air, land and sea.
moisture, groundwater and water channels. Human modifications to these can
be made at every scale.
Evapotranspiration, e Precipitation, p
ac
ai
Interception storage, D
er Stemflow
and drip
Surface storage, R Overland flow, qo
em
Infiltration, f
Soil moisture storage, M Throughflow, m
el
Seepage, s
Aeration zone storage, L Interflow, i
Groundwater recharge, d
Channel
Groundwater storage, G Baseflow, g storage, S Channel
runoff, q
Figure 1.1 The hydrological cycle
l Precipitation is the main input into the drainage basin system. The main
characteristics that affect local hydrology include: the total amount of
precipitation; intensity (mm/hour); type of precipitation (snow, rain etc.);
geographical distribution; and temporal variability (i.e. seasonality). Precipitation is the conversion and
l Interception has three main components: interception loss – water that transfer of moisture in the atmosphere
to the land. It includes rainfall, snow,
is retained by plant surfaces and which is later evaporated away or absorbed
frost, hail and dew.
by the plant; throughfall – water that either falls through gaps in the
vegetation or which drops from leaves, twigs or stems; stemflow – water Interception is the precipitation that is
collected and stored by vegetation.
that trickles along twigs and branches and finally down the main trunk.
Paper 1 Core Geography 7
l Evaporation and transpiration increase under warm, dry conditions and
Evaporation refers to the
decreases under cold, calm conditions. Meteorological factors affecting
transformation of liquid water from
evapotranspiration (EVT) include temperature, humidity and windspeed.
the Earth’s surface into a gas (water
Of these, temperature is the most important. Other factors include the
vapour).
amount of water available, vegetation cover and colour of the surface
Transpiration is water loss from
(albedo or reflectivity of the surface).
vegetation to the atmosphere.
l EVT represents the most important aspect of water loss, accounting for
Evapotranspiration is the combined
the loss of nearly 100% of the annual precipitation in arid areas and 75% in
loss of water to the atmosphere
humid areas. through transpiration and evaporation.
l Potential evapotranspiration (PEVT) is the water loss that would occur if
Infiltration is the process by which
there was an unlimited supply of water in the soil for use by the vegetation. water soaks into, or is absorbed by,
For example, the actual evapotranspiration rate in Egypt is less than 250 mm, the soil.
because there is less than 250 mm of rain annually. However, given the high
Runoff is water that flows over the
temperatures experienced in Egypt, if the rainfall was as high as 2000 mm, land’s surface.
there would be sufficient heat to evaporate that water. Hence the potential
evapotranspiration rate there is 2000 mm.
l The infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which rain can be
absorbed by a soil in a given condition. Infiltration is inversely related to
runoff and is influenced by a variety of factors such as duration of rainfall, Typical mistake
antecedent soil moisture (pre-existing levels of soil moisture), soil porosity,
Drainage basin hydrology is very
vegetation cover, raindrop size and slope angle. variable from year to year. This can be
Table 1.1 Influence of ground cover on infiltration rate due to natural changes or, increasingly,
human-related activities.
Ground cover Infiltration (mm/hour)
Old permanent pasture 57
Permanent pasture: moderately grazed 19 Expert tip
Permanent pasture: heavily grazed 13 You may be asked to draw a diagram of
a drainage basin hydrological cycle. A
Strip-cropped 10
systems diagram – with inputs, stores,
Weeds or grain 9 flows and outputs – such as that in
Clean tilled 7 Figure 1.1, is much better than one
that tries to show trees, clouds, rainfall,
Bare, crusted ground 6
glaciers, rivers, lakes and oceans, for
example.
l Soil moisture refers to the subsurface water in the soil. Field capacity
refers to the amount of water held in the soil after excess water drains
away, i.e. saturation or near saturation. Wilting points refer to the range
of moisture content in which permanent wilting of different plants occurs. Now test yourself
They define the approximate limits to plant growth. Throughflow refers
1 Define the following hydrological
to water flowing through the soil in natural pipes and percolines (lines of characteristics:
concentrated water flow between soil horizons).
(a) interception
l Groundwater refers to subsurface water. Groundwater accounts for 96.5% (b) ev
aporation
of all freshwater on the Earth. The permanently saturated zone within solid
(c) infiltration
rocks and sediments is known as the phreatic zone. The upper layer of this is
2 Study Figure 1.1.
known as the water table. Baseflow refers to the part of a river’s discharge
Outline the differences between
that is provided by groundwater seeping into the bed of a river. It is a
overland flow, throughflow and
relatively constant flow, although it increases slightly following a wet period. baseflow.
l Recharge refers to the refilling of water in pores where the water has dried 3 Suggest what is meant by
up or been extracted by human activity. Hence, in some places, where interception storage in Figure 1.1.
recharge is not taking place, groundwater is considered a non-renewable 4 Outline what may happen to water
resource. that is stored on the surface on the
ground.
l Aquifers are rocks that contain significant quantities of water. A spring is a
5 Comment on the influence of
natural flow of water from the Earth’s surface. It occurs when the water table
ground cover on infiltration rates
(the upper surface of saturation within permeable rocks) occurs at the
(Table 1.1).
surface.
Answers on p.213
Tested
8 Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography Revision uG ide
1 Hydrology and fluvial geomorphology
1.2 Rainfall–discharge relationships
within drainage basins
Annual hydrograph Revised
A hydrograph is a line graph showing how water level in a river changes
over time. There are two main types of hydrograph – annual hydrographs A flood hydrograph shows how the
(also known as river regimes) and storm hydrographs (also known as flood discharge of a river varies over a short
time – normally it refers to an individual
hydrographs). Annual hydrographs show variations in the flow of a river over
storm or group of storms of not more
the course of a year, whereas a storm hydrograph shows the variation in the
than a few days in duration.
flow of a river for a period of between 1 and 7 days.
A river regime is the annual variation
Stream flow occurs as a result of runoff, groundwater springs and input from in the flow of a river.
lakes and from meltwater in mountainous or sub-polar environments. The
character or regime of the resulting stream or river is influenced by several
variable factors: 40 GAualcdaalalq dueivl irR iat
l the amount and nature of precipitation 20
l the local rocks, especially porosity and permeability
l the shape or morphology of the drainage basin, its area and slope 0 J F MAM J J A S O N D
l the amount and type of vegetation cover
Figure 1.2 Guadalquivir regime
l the amount and type of soil cover
40 Shannon at Killaloe
In Figures 1.2–1.4 discharge is shown in litres per second per km2. On an annual
basis the most important factor determining stream regime is climate. Figure 1.2 20
shows a river regime for the Guadalquivir river at Alcala Del Ri in Spain. Its peak
flow is about 20 litres/second/km2 in March. It is generally in higher flow during 0 J F MAM J J A S O N D
winter whereas in summer it has low flow. In fact, in August there appears to be
no flow. Discharge in July and September is less than about 5 litres/second/km2. Figure 1.3 Shannon regime
This is due to the high-pressure system that characterises Mediterranean regions 40 Gloma at
Lamgnes
in summer, producing a summer drought. In contrast, winters are associated
20
with low-pressure systems and the resulting rain they bring, hence higher
discharges. 0
J F MAM J J A S O N D
Now test yourself Tested Figure 1.4 Gloma regime
6 Study Figures 1.3 and 1.4. Compare the river regimes of the Gloma (Norway) Expert tip
and Shannon (Ireland).
Make sure that you use units – it
7 Suggest reasons for their differences. would be easy here to just refer to high
Answers on p.213 discharge and low discharge (or high
flow and low flow). A scale is provided –
please make sure that you make use of it.
Flood hydrograph Revised
A flood hydrograph (Figure 1.5) normally refers to an individual storm or group
of storms of not more than a few days in length. Before the storm starts the
main supply of water to the stream is through groundwater flow or baseflow.
This is the main supplier of water to rivers. During the storm some water
infiltrates into the soil while some flows over the surface as overland flow or
runoff. This reaches the river quickly as quickflow. This causes the rapid rise
in the level of the river. The rising limb shows us how quickly the floodwaters
begin to rise, whereas the recessional limb is the speed with which the water
level in the river declines after the peak. The peak flow is the maximum
discharge of the river as a result of the storm and the lag time is the time
Paper 1 Core Geography 9
Discharge Discharge Discharge
(l/s/km2) (l/s/km2) (l/s/km2)
1 Hydrology and fluvial geomorphology