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Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology PDF

528 Pages·2014·67.46 MB·english
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology C J Clegg 175349_FM_Biology_00i-0viii.indd 1 13/10/14 8:24 PM The cover image is of an orang-utan, mother and infant. The name of these primates means ‘people of the forest’, and they share over 96 per cent of our own genetic make-up. Today, they live in the forests of Indonesia and Malaysia only. The future of orang-utan populations is under threat from deforestation. Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB. Telephone: (44) 01235 827720. Fax: (44) 01235 400454. Lines are open 9.00–5.00, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service. Visit our website at www.hoddereducation.com © C J Clegg 2014 First published in 2014 by Hodder Education, a Hachette UK company 338 Euston Road London NW1 3BH Impression number 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Cover photo by Eric Gevaert Typeset in ITC Garamond by Aptara, Inc. Printed in Italy A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1444 17534 9 175349_FM_Biology_00i-0viii.indd 2 13/10/14 8:24 PM Contents Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................................................vii AS Level 1 Cell structure ........................................................................................................................................................................1 1.1 The microscope in cell studies ..........................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Cells as the basic units of living organisms ....................................................................................................................14 2 Biological molecules ...........................................................................................................................................................29 2.1 Testing for biological molecules .................................................................................................................................... 29 2.2 Carbohydrates and lipids ................................................................................................................................................30 2.3 Proteins and water ..........................................................................................................................................................44 3 Enzymes ..............................................................................................................................................................................56 3.1 Mode of action of enzymes .............................................................................................................................................56 3.2 Factors that affect enzyme action ...................................................................................................................................63 4 Cell membranes and transport ...........................................................................................................................................74 4.1 Fluid mosaic membranes ................................................................................................................................................74 4.2 Movement of substances into and out of cells ...............................................................................................................78 5 The mitotic cell cycle ..........................................................................................................................................................97 5.1 Replication and division of nuclei and cells ....................................................................................................................97 5.2 Chromosome behaviour in mitosis ...............................................................................................................................105 6 Nucleic acids and protein synthesis .................................................................................................................................110 6.1 Structure and replication of DNA .................................................................................................................................110 6.2 Protein synthesis ...........................................................................................................................................................118 7 Transport in plants ...........................................................................................................................................................128 7.1 Structure of transport tissues .......................................................................................................................................128 7.2 Transport mechanisms ...................................................................................................................................................135 8 Transport in mammals ......................................................................................................................................................151 8.1 The circulatory system ..................................................................................................................................................151 8.2 The heart .......................................................................................................................................................................163 9 Gas exchange and smoking ..............................................................................................................................................172 9.1 The gas exchange system ..............................................................................................................................................172 9.2 Smoking ........................................................................................................................................................................181 10 Infectious disease ..........................................................................................................................................................192 10.1 Infectious diseases .....................................................................................................................................................192 10.2 Antibiotics ...................................................................................................................................................................210 11 Immunity ........................................................................................................................................................................218 11.1 The immune system ....................................................................................................................................................218 11.2 Antibodies and vaccination ........................................................................................................................................226 175349_FM_Biology_00i-0viii.indd 3 13/10/14 8:24 PM Contents A Level 12 Energy and respiration...................................................................................................................................................234 12.1 Energy .........................................................................................................................................................................234 12.2 Respiration..................................................................................................................................................................242 13 Photosynthesis ...............................................................................................................................................................261 13.1 Photosynthesis as an energy transfer process ...........................................................................................................261 13.2 Investigation of limiting factors .................................................................................................................................273 13.3 Adaptations for photosynthesis .................................................................................................................................279 14 Homeostasis ...................................................................................................................................................................286 14.1 Homeostasis in mammals ...........................................................................................................................................286 14.2 Homeostasis in plants .................................................................................................................................................307 15 Control and co-ordination .............................................................................................................................................311 15.1 Control and co-ordination in mammals ......................................................................................................................311 15.2 Control and co-ordination in plants ...........................................................................................................................334 16 Inherited change ............................................................................................................................................................342 16.1 Passage of information from parent to offspring ......................................................................................................342 16.2 The roles of genes in determining the phenotype .....................................................................................................350 16.3 Gene control ...............................................................................................................................................................372 17 Selection and evolution .................................................................................................................................................377 17.1 Variation .....................................................................................................................................................................377 17.2 Natural and artifi cial selection ...................................................................................................................................383 17.3 Evolution .....................................................................................................................................................................399 18 Biodiversity, classifi cation and conservation ................................................................................................................416 18.1 Biodiversity .................................................................................................................................................................416 18.2 Classifi cation ..............................................................................................................................................................429 18.3 Conservation ...............................................................................................................................................................439 19 Genetic technology ........................................................................................................................................................454 19.1 Principles of genetic technology ................................................................................................................................454 19.2 Genetic technology applied to medicine ....................................................................................................................467 19.3 Genetically modifi ed organisms in agriculture ..........................................................................................................485 Answers to self-assessment questions ...............................................................................................................................492 Index ...................................................................................................................................................................................510 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................................519 175349_FM_Biology_00i-0viii.indd 4 13/10/14 8:24 PM Contents Student’s CD contents Appendix 1: Background chemistry for biologists Appendix 2: Investigations, data handling and statistics Appendix 3: Preparing for your exam Also, for each topic: • An interactive test • A list of key terms • A topic summary • Additional work on data handling and practical skills • Suggested websites and further reading • A revision checklist • A nswers to all the examination-style questions 175349_FM_Biology_00i-0viii.indd 5 13/10/14 8:24 PM This page intentionally left blank Introduction Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology is an excellent introduction to the subject and a sound foundation for studies beyond A Level, in further and higher education, for professional courses and for productive employment in the future. Successful study of this programme gives lifelong skills, including: • confi dence in a technological world and informed interest in scientifi c matters • understanding of how scientifi c theories and methods have developed • awareness of the applications of biology in everyday life • ability to communicate effectively • concern for accuracy and precision • awareness of the importance of objectivity, integrity, enquiry, initiative and inventiveness • understanding of the usefulness and limitations of scientifi c methods and their applications • appreciation that biology is affected by social, economic, technological, ethical and cultural factors • knowledge that biological science overcomes national boundaries • awareness of the importance of IT • understanding of the importance of safe practice • an interest and care for the local and global environment and their conservation. This book is designed to serve students as they strive for these goals. The structure of the book The Cambridge International Examinations AS and A Level Biology syllabus is presented in sections. The contents of this book follows the syllabus sequence, with each section the subject of a separate topic. Topics 1 to 11 cover Sections 1 to 11 of the AS Level syllabus and are for all students. AS students are assessed only on these. Topics 12 to 19 cover Sections 12 to 19, the additional sections of the syllabus for A Level students only. In addition, there are the answers to the self-assessment questions. Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology has many special features. • Each topic begins with the syllabus learning outcomes which identify essential objectives. • The text is written in straightforward language, uncluttered by phrases or idioms that might confuse students for whom English is a second language. • Photographs, electron micrographs and full-colour illustrations are linked to support the relevant text, with annotations included to elaborate the context, function or applications. • Explanations of structure are linked to function. The habitat and environment of organisms are identifi ed where appropriate. Application of biology to industries and the economic, environmental and ethical consequences of developments are highlighted, where appropriate. • Processes of science (scientifi c methods) and something of the history of developments are introduced selectively to aid a ppreciation of the possibilities and limitations of science. • Questions are included to assist comprehension and recall. Answers to these are given at the back of the book. At the end of each topic, examination-style questions are given. Answers to these are given on the CD. vii 175349_FM_Biology_00i-0viii.indd 7 13/10/14 8:24 PM Introduction A new feature of the syllabus is Key concepts. These are the essential ideas, theories, principles or mental tools that help learners to develop a deep understanding of their subject, and make links between different topics. An icon indicates where each Key concept is covered: Cells as the units of life A cell is the basic unit of life and all organisms are composed of one or more cells. There are two fundamental types of cell: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Biochemical processes Cells are dynamic: biochemistry and molecular biology help to explain how and why cells function as they do. DNA, the molecule of heredity Cells contain the molecule of heredity, DNA. Heredity is based on the inheritance of genes. Natural selection Natural selection is the major mechanism to explain the theory of evolution. Organisms in their environment All organisms interact with their biotic and abiotic environment. Observation and experiment The different fi elds of biology are intertwined and cannot be studied in isolation: observation and enquiry, experimentation and fi eldwork are fundamental to biology. Author’s acknowledgements I am indebted to the experienced international teachers and the students who I have been privileged to meet in Asia and in the UK in the process of preparing this material. I am especially indebted to Christine Lea, an experienced teacher and examiner of Biology who has guided me topic by topic on the special needs of the students for whom this book is designed. Finally, I am indebted to the publishing team of project editor, Lydia Young, editor Joanna Silman and designer Melissa Brunelli at Hodder Education, and to freelance editor Penny Nicholson whose skill and patience have brought together text and illustration as I have wished. I am most grateful to them. Dr Chris Clegg Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK June, 2014 viii 175349_FM_Biology_00i-0viii.indd 8 13/10/14 8:24 PM AS Level 1 Cell structure All organisms are composed of cells. Knowledge of their structure The use of light microscopes is a fundamental skill that is developed and function underpins much of biology. The fundamental in this topic and applied throughout several other sections of the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are explored syllabus. Throughout the course, photomicrographs and electron and provide useful biological background for the topic on Infectious micrographs from transmission and scanning electron microscopes disease. Viruses are introduced as non-cellular structures, which should be studied. gives candidates the opportunity to consider whether cells are a fundamental property of life. 1.1 The microscope in cell studies An understanding of the By the end of this section you should be able to: principles of microscopy shows why light and a) compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells by making temporary preparations of electron microscopes have live material and using photomicrographs been essential in improving b) calculate the linear magnifi cations of drawings, photomicrographs and electron micrographs our knowledge of cells. c) use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer scale to measure cells and be familiar with units (millimetre, micrometre, nanometre) used in cell studies d) explain and distinguish between resolution and magnifi cation, with reference to light microscopy and electron microscopy e) calculate actual sizes of specimens from drawings, photomicrographs and electron micrographs Introducing cells The cell is the basic unit of living matter – the smallest part of an organism which we can say is alive. It is cells that carry out the essential processes of life. We think of them as self-contained units of structure and function. Some organisms are made of a single cell and are known as unicellular. Examples of unicellular organisms are introduced in Figure 1.1. In fact, there are vast numbers of different unicellular organisms in the living world, many with a very long evolutionary history. Question Other organisms are made of many cells and are known as multicellular organisms. Examples of multicellular organisms are the mammals and fl owering plants. Much of the biology in this 1 State the essential book is about multicellular organisms, including humans, and the processes that go on in these processes characteristic organisms. But remember, single-celled organisms carry out all the essential functions of life too, of living things. only these occur within the single cell. 1 175349_01_Biology_001-028.indd 1 13/10/14 7:43 PM

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