Calvin Coolidge's Afro-American Connection

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Contributions in Black Studies
A Journal of African and Afro-American Studies
Volume 8 Article 7
1986
Calvin Coolidge's Afro-American Connection
Maceo Crenshaw Dailey Jr.
Boston College
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Dailey, Maceo Crenshaw Jr. (1986) "Calvin Coolidge's Afro-American Connection,"Contributions in Black Studies: Vol. 8 , Article 7.
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Dailey: Calvin Coolidge's Afro-American Connection
Maceo Crenshaw Dailey, Jr.
CALVIN COOLIDGE'S AFRO
AMERICAN CONNECTION
I NTHEWAKEofPresidentWarrenG.Harding'sdeathandtheentryofCalvin
CoolidgeintheWhiteHouseaschiefexecutiveinAugust,1923,blacks,like
the bulk ofordinary white Americans, were uncertain ofwhat to expect.
Nonetheless, thoseclosetothepriorpresidentialadministration, whetherblack
orwhite,hadclearreasontobelievethatCoolidgewaspreeminentlyqualifiedto
carry on in the fashion of his predecessor. They anticipated his continued
implementationofRepublicanpoliciesinaccordwithpoliticalpromiseswhich
hadledtotheparty'soverwhelmingelectoralvictoryin1920. Indeed,Harding's
breaking of tradition to allow his Vice President Coolidge to sit with the
presidential cabinetensuredthat the new chiefexecutive understood and was
preparedadministrativelytodealwithtariffissues,tax-reformlegislation,meas
uresforthereductionofthepublicdebt, andthehostofotherpoliticalpromises
Republicans madein 1920. In 1924Coolidge,however, hadtowinnomination
and election to the office in his own right in order to continue the quest for
legislationconsonantwiththeRepublicanpartypoliticalmandatereceivedfour
years earlier.
Inonesense,Coolidge'sascendancytotheexecutiveofficeandhisunfold
ing, staunchcampaignforelectiontothatpostin 1924werereminiscentofthe
politicalactivities ofTheodoreRooseveltin 1901. Roosevelthadaggressively
demonstratedthatanindividualinthegenerallyregarded"deadend"politicaljob
ofvicepresidentcouldinheritthechiefexecutivepost,wrestcontroloftheparty
fromitsrecognizedleadersifneedbe, andmakeagallantandsuccessfulbidto
becomepresident. Rooseveltbecamethefirstvicepresidenttoengineersucha
feat, andmanagedto dosoon theformation ofastrong politicalcoalitionthat
involved both blacks and whites. Coolidge's task was not unlike that of
Roosevelt,thoughhewouldhavetoduplicatesuchafeatinlessthanhalfthetime
Roosevelt had had at his disposal. Coolidge's assignment, however, was
somewhatless difficultowing to his almost total agreementon economic and
politicalprincipleswithhispredecessor,Harding. Thiswaspartoftheattraction
ofRepublicans to Coolidge. Ifthe Presidenthad any majorproblem atall, it
centeredonpossiblepoliticalcomplicationsarisingoutofthealarminginnuen
doesconcerningthecorruptionandscandaloftheHardingadministration. Such
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Contributions in Black Studies, Vol. 8 [1986], Art. 7
78 Maceo CrenshawDailey,Jr.
rumors hadthepotentialofunderminingCoolidge's credibility andbidfor the
presidencyin 1924 by associating himtoo much with theHarding administra
tion.'
Coolidge moved expeditiously and adroitly toward grappling with this
problem and achieving his overall goal ofelection to the presidency. In the
processheshrewdlysoughtpoliticalsupportfrombothblacks andwhitesinthe
SouthwhereRepublicanpopularitywouldalmostassuredlybringaboutnational
success for the party in 1924. In bidding for the political backing of white
southerners,CoolidgeappointedC.BascomSlemp, formercongressmanfrom
Virginiato thepostas WhiteHousesecretary in 1923, and also made another
southerner,ClarenceSherill,hisnewmilitaryaideandsuperintendentofbuild
ings andgrounds in theDistrictofColumbia. In the questfor thepresidential
nominationin1924,herealizedtheirvalueintheefforttoobtainadditionalwhite
southernsupportasquicklyaspossible. Slemp,inparticular,didproveextremely
useful to Coolidge in his bid for the nomination when the white southerner
explained to a congressional committee the nature and extent ofthe Harding
administration scandal. He was able to convince the Republican national
conventiontoforego anearlierrulingthatwouldhavereducedsignificantlythe
numberofdelegatesfromGeorgia,Mississippi,andSouthCarolina,stateswhere
theincumbentpresidentanticipatedmajorsupport. Slempalsoimpressedupon
other white southernRepublicans the importanceofbacking Coolidge for the
presidentialnomination. InbringingSlempintotheWhiteHouse,Coolidge,in
particular,hadsucceededinincreasinghisstatureamongSouthernwhites. The
President next turned to the Afro-American community, equally zealous in
courting an importantpoliticalfriendship.2
InseekingthesupportofAfro-Americans,Coolidgeunderstoodthepolitical
implicationofthedemographicshiftofsome400,000to 1,000,000blacksfrom
theSouthin theyears between 1910and 1920(somethingmostwhiteRepubli
cans seemedtobeobliviousorunwillingtograspfully), andtherefore appreci
ated the potential ofthe black vote in key states. In Coolidge's papers is a
memorandumof9August1924noting thenumberofAfro-Americanvotersin
"importantstates"intheWestandNorth. AttractingtheseAfro-Americanvoters
For cogent discussions of this question, see John Blum, The RepublicanRoosevelt
I
(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress, 1954);SethScheiner, "TheodoreRooseveltand
theNegro, 1901-1908,"JournalofNegroHistory, 47(November, 1962): 169;LouisR.
Harlan,BookerT.Washington,TheWizardofTuskegee,1901-1915(NewYork:Oxford
University Press, 1983),3-32;DonaldMcCoy, Calvin Coolidge: The QuietPresident
(NewYork: MacMillanCompany, 1967),217,241.
2 Edward C. Lathem, Your Son, Calvin Coolidge (Montepelier: Vermont Historical
Society,1968),34-40;McCoy,CalvinCoolidge,1-30,217,241;ClaudeM.Feuss,Calvin
Coolidge:TheManFromVermont(Boston:Little,Brown, andCompany, 1940), 1-70.
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Dailey: Calvin Coolidge's Afro-American Connection
CalvinCoolidge 79
was thechallengeforCoolidge,fortheyhadnoespecialreasontosupporthim.
While the appointments of Slemp and Sherrill counted as excellent political
strategy for gaining white southern support, they weredecisions anathema to
many blacks who viewed the two men as little more than segregationists and
membersofthe"LilyWhite"faction. ThatfactionhademergedintheSouthin
the 1890s on the basis ofapoliticalprogramexcluding Afro-Americans from
participating andexercising influence inRepublican partyconventions on the
local,state, andnationallevels. Theappointments werenotencouragingsigns
toAfro-Americans, thensizingup aCoolidgewhoindeedhadbeenalmosttoo
quietasVicePresidentandwasstilllargelyunknowntoblacks. Uponbecoming
presidentin1923abouttheonlyvirtuehehadtocommendhimtoblackswasthe
factthathecamefromNewEngland, aregionAfro-Americans associatedwith
theAbolitionistmovementoftheantebellumeraandwithmoreliberalattitudes
onmattersaffectingracerelationsandcitizenshiprightsforblacksatthetumof
thetwentiethcentury. YetNewEnglandhadinstilledinhimnoneofthisstrong
commitmentordetermination to improving racerelationsinthecountry.3
Therewerereasons,however,forCoolidge'slackofinterestincriticalracial
issuesofhisday. InVermontwherehewasbornon4July1872,Coolidge,ifthe
writtenrecordiscorrect,hadnofamiliarity withAfro-Americansorthehostof
problemstheyfaced. Hisfirstexposuretoblackscameinalimitedmannerinthe
early1890swhenheenteredAmherstCollege. ProminentonAmherst'scampus
inthatperiodwastheaccomplishedAfro-Americanstudentathlete,WilliamH.
Lewis, who after graduating from that college obtained a law degree from
Harvard University and subsequently became a follower of the unusually
powerfulblackleaderandprincipalofTuskegeeInstitute,BookerT.Washing
ton. Lewis' athletic exploits while he was in college caught the attention of
CoolidgeduringhisschooldaysatAmherst. InOctober,1892,theyoungCalvin,
who attended major athletic contests involving college rivalries, wrote to his
fatherthattheHarvardfootballteamhadtrouncedsoundlyitsAmherstopponents
byascoreof26to0andthata"negrobythenameofLewis"playing"centrerush"
ledtheCambridgeeleventovictory. ThiswasperhapstheonlyinterestCoolidge
expressedinan Afro-American, atleastwhilehe was astudentatAmherst.'
InCoolidge'ssubsequentcareeras an attorneyinNorthampton, legislator,
3"MemorandumonImportantStates,"August9,1924,reel63,CalvinCoolidgePapers,
MicrofilmEdition, Forbes Library, Northampton, Massachusetts;SamMarvello, "The
MigrationofBlackstotheNorth,1911-1918"JournalofBlackStudies, 15(March,1985),
292;DanielM.Johnson and Rex R. Campbell,BlackMigrationin America: ASocial
DemographicHistory(Durham: DukeUniversityPress,1981),68-79.
• Lathem, Your Son, Calvin Coolidge, 34-40; McCoy, Calvin Coolidge, 1-30; Feuss,
CalvinCoolidge:TheManFromVermont, 1-70.
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Contributions in Black Studies, Vol. 8 [1986], Art. 7
80 Maceo CrenshawDailey.Jr.
andgovernorinMassachusetts from 1900to 1920, andearlyyears as the Vice
PresidentoftheUnitedStates,hefocusedinanominalandlimitedwayonissues
ofconcern to Afro-Americans. The sumtotal ofhis early political efforts on
behalfofthe blackcommunitymay havebeenaceremonialsaluteas governor
in1919welcominghomeMassachusettsblacksoldierswhofoughtinWorldWar
Iandhisdiscussionon27April1920withthenBostonattorneyWilliamH.Lewis
regarding thepossibilityofforming amachinegunbattalionofAfro-American
troopsinMassachusetts. ThislatterrecommendationCoolidgetransmittedtothe
SecretaryofWarNewtonD. Baker. Coolidge'slater years as VicePresident,
however, did acquaint him with some Afro-American leaders on the national
level. He responded positively to a request in 1922 from Emmett Jay Scott,
formerly secretary to Booker T. Washington, to recommend a black, Butler
Wilson,forastatepatronagejobinMassachusetts. Coolidgehonoredthisappeal
owinglargelytothepoliticalsupporthereceivedfromButlerasaMassachusetts
delegate to theRepublicanpartypresidentialnominatingconventionof1920.5
Lateras VicePresident,Coolidgehadachancetoseean importantsideof
black life in the South when he traveled to Tuskegee, Alabama in 1923 to
participateinthededicationceremonyfortheopeningoftheVeteransHospital.
TherehemetRobertRussaMoton,formerlycommandantofcadetsatHampton
Institute, who succeeded Booker T. Washington as principal of Tuskegee
Institutein1916. CoolidgecametoliketheAfro-Americanleaderaswellasthe
brandofeducationaltrainingheespousedatTuskegeeInstitute:tradesandcrafts
or the newest techniques in farming, all primarily in the endeavor to prepare
blacks forjobsorlandownership. WhileintheAlabamatown, Coolidge, in a
promptshowofsupportforMoton,volunteeredtocontributetoeffortstoincrease
the endowment funds ofTuskegee Institute and its sister school, Hampton in
Virginia. His appreciationofMotonand thedifficulties the blackleaderfaced
intheSouthalsoledtoasignificantshowofsupportfromtheWhiteHousewhen
thestruggleovercontroloftheVeteransHospitalprecipitatedracial tensionin
Tuskegeeshortlyafterthemedicalfacilities wereopened.-
EmmettJayScotttoWilliamH.Lewis,27April1920,cant.18;LewistoScott,30April
5
1920, cant. 28; Scott to Channing Cox, 25 January 1923, cant. 24; Republican Party
CampaignBroadside,c.1920,cant.28,EmmettJayScottPapers,SoperLibrary,Morgan
StateUniversity,Baltimore,Maryland.
_Robert R. Moton to Calvin Coolidge, 17 December 1924, reel 64; Calvin Coolidge
Statement, 3October 1924, reel 64, Coolidge Papers, Microfilm Eition; Coolidge to
Moton,9August1923,cant.86,RobertRussaMotonPapers,HollisB.FrissellLibrary,
Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama; PeteDaniel, "BlackPowerin the 1920s:The
CaseofTuskegeeVeteransHospital,"JourlUllofSouthernHistory, 36(August, 1970)
368-88;Harlan.BookerT. Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee,5-31.
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Dailey: Calvin Coolidge's Afro-American Connection
~
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5·
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Reviewing the Tuskegee R.O.T.e., 1923: fifth from right, Governor W.W. Brandon of Alabama; fourth, Vice
President Calvin Coolidge; third, Dr. Robert R. Moton, Principal, Tuskegee Institute. Photo courtesy of Dan 0....0..
T. Williams, Archivist, Tuskegee University.
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Contributions in Black Studies, Vol. 8 [1986], Art. 7
82 Maceo CrenshawDailey.Jr.
Tuskegeewhiteoppositionin1923toAfro-Americanemploymentinupper
echelonjobsintheVeteransHospitalledtoaKuKluxKlanmarchonthegrounds
of the facilities to intimidate blacks then working there. In its sortie on the
hospital,however,thewhitesupremacistgroupavoidedmarchingdirectlyonthe
campus ofnearbyTuskegeeInstitutewhere manyAfro-Americanfarmers and
schoolalumnihadstationedthemselves toprotectMoton, thestudents, andthe
institutionidentifiedwiththevenerableBookerT. Washington. Inthemidstof
this tension-filled environmentMoton, who was confronted with the difficult
diplomatic taskofmaintainingpeace as well as obtainingjobsforblacks in the
hospital,receivedextraordinarysupportfromtheWhiteHouseinaccomplishing
his two objectives.1
By 1923Coolidge,itseems,hadcometosympathizewith blacks on some
problems regarding their plight in the American society, but perhaps more
significantwas thefact thatin this stageofhis politicalcareer, he hadcometo
understand these issues through contact with Tuskegee individuals such as
Moton,Scott, andLewis. LiketheirformerleaderBookerT.Washington, they
wereindividualswhosoughttoprofitbytiestopowerfulpoliticiansandphilan
thropists in theNorth andSouth. Consequently, they turned to Coolidge with
similar thoughts when he became president in 1923. Coolidge's ties to these
individuals, coupled with his willingness to meet with other distinguished
reform-minded blacks, augured well for the President during his formative
months inoffice and led to aperiodofgoodwill between him and the overall
Afro-Americancommunity"
CoolidgewelcomedofficialsoftheNegroNationalEducationalCongressto
theWhiteHouseinSeptember,1923andlistenedattentivelytotheirexpressions
ofalarmabouttheproblemsofsegregationanddiscriminationwithinthefederal
government. InOctoberthePresidentgrantedaninterviewtoanAfro-American
groupbroughttoWashingtonbyWilliamMonroeTrotter,thefieryblackeditor
oftheBoston Guardian. Trotterhad gained much attention at the tum ofthe
twentiethcenturyasamajorcriticofBookerT.Washington'spublicprogramof
placingeconomicdevelopmentandtradeschooleducationaheadofthestruggle
forAfro-Americanvotingrights andcrusadeagainstsegregationistcodesinthe
country. (Trotter, who seldom minced words, had been so outspoken on a
1 Daniel,"BlackPowerintheI920s,"368-88;Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizard
ofTuskegee, 5-31.
• InthepersonalpapersofCoolidgeandhisstandardbiographiesbyMcCoyandFeuss,
thereisnoevidencetosuggestthathiscontactwithblacksduringhisearlydaysandvice
presidencywentbeyondinteractionwiththeTuskegee-orientedmen. Forinformationon
this topic see the microfilmedition ofthe Coolidge papers as wellas the collectionof
personalcorrespondencelocatedinForbesLibraryin Northampton, Massachusetts.
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Dailey: Calvin Coolidge's Afro-American Connection
Calvin Coolidge 83
previous trip to the White House almost adecade earlier that then President,
Woodrow Wilson, peremptorily terminated the meeting. This made it all the
moreremarkablethatanotherPresident,Coolidge,wouldagreetoseetheBoston
editor.) InthatmeetingTrotterurgedthePresidenttocontinuetoassistMoton
inhiseffortstoensureblacksacentralroleinpoliciespertainingtotheVeterans
Hospital. TrotteralsoencouragedCoolidgetogivestrongpresidentialbacking
toananti-lynchingbillexpectedtocomebeforeCongressin1924,andtakesteps
toincreasetheenrollmentofblacksinWestPointandtheNavalAcademy. After
theTrottermeeting,thePresidentmetanotherblackdelegationledtotheWhite
House in that same month by the prominent Afro-American attorney from
Richmond, Virginia,Giles B.Jackson,whoimpresseduponCoolidgetheneed
for a Negro Industrial Commission, a proposal expectedto beincludedin the
DelawareCongressmanCalebR.Layton'slegislativebilltobeconsideredbythe
HouseofRepresentatives thatyear.9
FromthePresident'sviewpoint,perhapsthemostsignificantblackvisitorto
theWhiteHouseinOctoberwasRobertRussaMoton,theprincipalofTuskegee,
whohadcometo sharewithCoolidgeinformationon southern politicalissues
affectingtheRepublicanparty. ThemeetingwastheresultofaletterfromMoton
toCoolidgeseveralweeksearlier,advisingthePresidenttoconferwithsouthern
politiciansJosephO.Thompson, awhiteinAlabama, andRobertR. Church, a
wealthy black businessman in Tennessee. Both men, as former Booker T.
Washingtonpoliticalassociates,hadacquiredanexcellentunderstandingofthe
Republicanpartymachineintheirregion. Theiradvice,Motonbelieved,would
beusefulingrapplingwiththeissuesofdelegatesupportintheconventionand
thepossiblepoliticalstrengthofthepartyin theirstatesintheelectionof1924.
OtherTuskegee-orientedpoliticalstalwartsattunedtotheBookerT.Washington
dictatesofobtainingpatronagepositionstraveledtotheWhiteHouseinOctober,
themostprominentbeingEmmettJayScott, thensecretary-treasurerandbusi
nessmanagerofHowardUniversity,JamesA.Cobb,alawprofessoratthesame
institution,andWilliamH.Lewis. They, as agroup,promptlysuggestedtothe
Presidentthekindsofblackpoliticalappointmentstobemade,andevendrafted
forCoolidgethenecessarywordingofapolicystatementwhenthetimecameto
announce to newspapers the anticipated patronagejobs to be given to Afro
Americans.1O
9 John Blair, "ATimeforParting: The Negro DuringtheCoolidge Years,"American
StudiesSeries, Volume 3 (London, England), 178-79;Stephen Fox, The Guardian of
Boston:WilliamMonroeTrotter(NewYork: Atheneum, 1971),248-49;Sherman,The
RepublicanParty andBlackAmerica,200-23.
C. BascomSlemp to Moton, 22September1923,cant. 86;Moton to Coolidge, 15
10
October 1923, cant. 86, Moton Papers; "Suggested Statement for the President," 4
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Contributions in Black Studies, Vol. 8 [1986], Art. 7
84 Maceo CrenshawDailey,Jr.
ThoughCoolidgewasdrawnpoliticallytotheTuskegee-orientedfactionas
awhole, itappearedfor the momentinOctober, 1923 thathisdoors wereopen
to othersignificantblackleaders ofthepress,civilrights organizations, educa
tionalinstitutions, andRepublican party as well. Thus, despite initialreserva
tions,blacksasawholeweremoreoptimisticasthenewadministrationbeganto
take shape. An indication oftheir positive attitude toward the President was
reflectedin theDistrictofColumbiablacknewspaper, the Washington Eagle,
whichopinedthat"muchsignificanceisattachedtotheeasyaccess totheWhite
Housewhichcoloredcitizensnowenjoy." Coolidgedidremainopentovisitsand
discussions with Afro-Americans, and sought their advice on matters ofrace
relations. Any doubts he may have had about what Afro-Americans wanted
politicallymusthavebeendispelledbythesemeetings. Inparticular,hereceived
a long detailed memorandum in November from the head of the Associated
NegroPress,NahumB.Brascher,whoplacedhisnewsserviceatthedisposalof
the President as he had done also for Harding. Brascher wrote to Coolidge,
summarizing and confirming that the issues central to Afro-Americans were
policychangestostoplynchings,segregationinpublicoffices,andthediscrimi
nationpoliciesofthecivilservice. BrascheralsoadvisedthePresidenttoprovide
morepatronageappointments forblacks,extendthe influencesofAfro-Ameri
cansinpolicy-makingdecisionsattheVeteransHospitalinTuskegee,ensurethe
enfranchisementofmore blacks insouthernstates, andincreasethe numberof
blackrepresentativesinRepublicannationalconventions. Resolvingallofthese
problems to the satisfaction of Afro-Americans would have been a difficult
assignment for Coolidge, but he continued to give hope to blacks that some
reformwas forthcoming byhis willingness todiscuss these matterspublicly.n
ThepinnacleofAfro-Americanconfidenceinthenewchiefexecutivecame,
consequently, shortly after Coolidge gave the annual presidential address to
Congress inNovemberandopenedthesegmentofthisspeechonracialreform
with the ringing declaration thatunder the Constitution, "therights ofcolored
citizenswereassacredasthoseofanyothercitizen"andthatitwas"bothapublic
and private duty to protect these rights." The President went on to urge the
Congress "to exercise all its power ofprevention andpunishment against the
hideouscrimeoflynching." Healsoacknowledgedthatmoneyhadalreadybeen
appropriatedtogiveblackAmericansvocationaltraininginagriculture,recom
mendedfederalfundsforthemedicalschoolofthepredominant!yblackHoward
Universitytocontributetotheoverallobjectiveofproducing an additionalfive
October1923,reel63,microfilmeditionofCoolidgePapers.
N.D.BraschertoCoolidge,6November1923,reel63,CoolidgePapers;Washington
11
Eagle, 6October1923.
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Dailey: Calvin Coolidge's Afro-American Connection
CalvinCoolidge 85
hundredAfro-Americandoctors, andpointedtotheneedforabiracialindustrial
committee to facilitate the adjustment of large numbers of southern blacks
migrating to northern urban centers in search ofjobs and all-around better
conditions. ConcludingtheportionofhisspeechonAfro-Americans,Coolidge
didlessenthestingoftheseremarks towhitesbyproclaimingthat"itwaswell
torecognize that[racial] difficultiesareto alargeextentlocalproblemswhich
must be worked out by mutual forbearance and human kindness of each
community. Such amethodgives much more promise ofareal remedy than
outsideinterference."l2
In these succinct but significant statements the President touched upon
issuesthathadlongtroubledblacksandforwhichtheyhadsoughtsolutionson
many previous occasions. Lynchings had been aperennial problem since the
AmericanCivilWar. From1880to1920,some3,112Afro-Americanshadbeen
victims of lynch mobs in the United States, but congressional legislative
measurestoendthisoftenraciallymotivatedcrimehadbeenvoteddownonfive
separateoccasionspriorto 1923. In 1923,theveryyearinwhichCongressman
LeonidasDyer'santi-lynchingmeasurewasdefeatedintheUnitedStatesSenate,
atotaloftwenty-nineAfro-Americans hadbeenhangedbymobs. Anticipating
thereintroductionoftheDyerBillinCongressin 1924,Coolidgetook acoura
geousstepinurgingCapitolHilllegislatorstopass theanti-lynching measure.
Thechiefexecutive'srecommendationforabiracialcommissionforeasingthe
settlementofsouthernblackmigrantsinnorthernindustrializedareasamounted
to anendorsementoftheLaytonbill,oneofthegoalsofwhich was tofacilitate
the transition of workers to life in urban regions. This particular bill was
scheduledtocome before Congress in 1924. Coolidge's pledging offunds to
HowardUniversity,aninstitutionexperiencingthekindofgrowthanddevelop
ment in the 1920s which caused blacks to label it "the Capstone of Negro
Education,"provedextremelysoothingtomanyAfro-Americanswholookedto
the Washington, D.C., center oflearning for the much needed cadre ofwell
traineddoctors,dentists,lawyers,engineers,preachers,andteachers vitaltothe
welfare of the black community. In all, the Afro-American segment of the
President's annual speech beforeCongress in 1923 was favorably received by
blackswhointerpreteditas thebeginningofnewexecutivesensitivityto assist
themin theirendeavorstoimprovetheirstatus in the Americansociety.13
In the wake of his speech to Congress, Coolidge continued to welcome
12 CalvinCoolidge,AnnualMessageofthePresidentoftheUnitedStatestoJointSession
ofCongress, November, 1923(Washington: GovemmentPrintingPress), 1-14.
13 MaceoCrenshaw Dailey, Jr., "EmmettJayScott: The CareerofaSecondaryBlack
Leader," Ph.D. dissertation, Howard University, 1983,438-77;Giles B. Jackson to C.
BascomSlemp,25October1923,reel63,CoolidgePapers.
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