CAE Oxford Aviation Academy. ATPL Book 10 General Navigation

576 Pages·88.506 MB·English

GENERAL NAVIGATION
ATPL GROUND TRAINING SERIES
S
I
Introduction
© CAE Oxford Aviation Academy (UK) Limited 2014
I
All Rights Reserved
In
t
ro
d
uc This text book is to be used only for the purpose of private study by individuals and may not be reproduced in
t
io any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted or adapted in whole or
n
in part without the prior written consent of CAE Oxford Aviation Academy.
Copyright in all documents and materials bound within these covers or attached hereto, excluding that material
which is reproduced by the kind permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to CAE
Oxford Aviation Academy.
Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation Organisation, the
United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).
This text book has been written and published as a reference work to assist students enrolled on an approved
EASA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course to prepare themselves for the EASA ATPL theoretical knowledge
examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice
relating to practical flying.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this book, neither
CAE Oxford Aviation Academy nor the distributor gives any warranty as to its accuracy or otherwise. Students
preparing for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute
for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of ‘Part-FCL 1’ (the
Syllabus). The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in an EASA
ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is currently entitled to enter
himself/herself for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations without first being enrolled in a training
school which has been granted approval by an EASA authorised national aviation authority to deliver EASA ATPL
(A) training.
CAE Oxford Aviation Academy excludes all liability for any loss or damage incurred or suffered as a result of any
reliance on all or part of this book except for any liability for death or personal injury resulting from CAE Oxford
Aviation Academy’s negligence or any other liability which may not legally be excluded.
Printed in Singapore by KHL Printing Co. Pte Ltd
ii
I
Introduction
Textbook Series
I
n
o
ti
c
u
Book Title Subject d
o
tr
n
1 010 Air Law I
2 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 1 Airframes & Systems
Fuselage, Wings & Stabilising Surfaces
Landing Gear
FHlyigdhrta uCloicnstrols
Air Systems & Air Conditioning
Anti-icing & De-icing
Fuel Systems
Emergency Equipment
3 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 2 Electrics – Electronics
Direct Current
Alternating Current
4 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 3 Powerplant
Piston Engines
Gas Turbines
5 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 4 Instrumentation
Flight Instruments
Warning & Recording
Automatic Flight Control
Power Plant & System Monitoring Instruments
6 030 Flight Performance & Planning 1 Mass & Balance
Performance
7 030 Flight Performance & Planning 2 Flight Planning & Monitoring
8 040 Human Performance & Limitations
9 050 Meteorology
10 060 Navigation 1 General Navigation
11 060 Navigation 2 Radio Navigation
12 070 Operational Procedures
13 080 Principles of Flight
14 090 Communications VFR Communications
IFR Communications
iii
I
Introduction
I
In
t
ro
d
u
c
t
io
n
iv
I
Introduction
Contents
I
n
ATPL Book 10 General Navigation tio
c
u
d
o
tr
n
I
1. Direction, Latitude and Longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Great Circles, Rhumb Lines & Directions on the Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3. Earth Magnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4. The Navigation Computer - Slide Rule Face. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5. The Navigation Computer - Distance, Speed, Time and Conversions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6. The Navigation Computer - TAS and Altitude Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
7. The Navigation Computer - Triangle of Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
8. The Navigation Computer - Calculation of Heading and Wind Finding . . . . . . . . . . . .137
9. The Navigation Computer - Multi-drift Winds and Wind Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10. The 1 in 60 Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
11. Navigation Using the 1 in 60 Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
12. Other Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
13. Topographical Maps and Map Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
14. Convergency and Conversion Angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
15. Departure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
16. Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
17. General Chart Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
18. Mercator Charts - Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
19. Mercator Charts - Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
20. Mid Course Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
21. Lambert’s Conformal Chart - 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
22. Lambert’s Conformal Chart - 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
23. The Polar Stereographic Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
24. Time (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
25. Time (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
26. Time (3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
27. Gridded Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
28. Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
29. The Direct Indicating Compass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Continued Overleaf
v
I
Introduction
30. Aircraft Magnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
I
31. General Navigation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
In
t
ro 32. Revision Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
d
u
c
tio 33. Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
n
vi
Chapter
1
Direction, Latitude and Longitude
The Shape of the Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Geodosy and Geoid Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Basic Direction on the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Sexagesimal System / True Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Position Reference Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Circles on the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Equator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Meridians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Prime (or Greenwich) Meridian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Small Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Parallels of Latitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Graticule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Geocentric and Geodetic Latitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Special Cases of Parallels of Latitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Difference in Longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Reversal of the Apparent Sense of Longitude at the Greenwich Anti-meridian (180°E/W) . . . .13
Difference in Principle between Latitude and Longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Positions in Latitude and Longitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Conversion of Latitude and Longitude to Distance on the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Resolution Accuracy Using Latitude and Longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Great Circle Vertices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
1
1
Direction, Latitude and Longitude
1
D
ire
c
t
io
n
, L
a
t
it
u
d
e
a
n
d
L
o
n
g
it
u
d
e
2
1
Direction, Latitude and Longitude
The Shape of the Earth
1
e
The simple view of the shape of the Earth is that it is a sphere, and this is nearly true. In fact, the d
u
t
Earth’s shape is commonly described as an oblate spheroid, that is, a sphere which is slightly gi
n
o
flattened at its poles. This shape developed when the Earth formed from a gas-cloud as the spin L
d
n
of the cloud caused higher centrifugal forces at the equatorial region than in regions nearer a
e
the poles. The flattening is called compression and in the case of the Earth is approximately ud
t
0.3% (1/300th). More simply put, the Earth’s polar diameter is or 23 nautical miles or 43 km ati
L
less than its equatorial diameter. Recent satellite surveys of the Earth have also shown it to be on,
ti
slightly pear-shaped with its maximum diameter occurring south of the Equator. This Southern ec
hemisphere distortion is considerably less than the compression distortion and is measured in Dir
tIcpfeor notuhsjled eoc fEtd iamoernaetshlt .r wewIfs ie ttrhhrae et ht pcheoearrm tft ehpqcarutenliyst ks esii oploenhma ewsreilietycrra eelisn, c. tohpmeronpd lietutsce iclnyrog s systm-hseemc eteitoqrnuic aawtli,oo tunhlsed n nb etehc eea s cscraiorrcsylse -.st oeMc tapitorhoned wmucoaeut ilcdmia abnpes
a perfect ellipse, which would also not be too mathematically complicated.
However, the Earth is not quite either of these, and so the only word to describe it is “Earth-
shaped”. This is what the word geoid (of Greek origin) means.
Geodosy and Geoid Models
A number of different agencies have measured and modelled the Earth (and produced the
equations to define their geoids). Each agency has tended to optimize its geoid to give the best
fit to the actual shape of the Earth over the area in which it is interested in mapping. This may
mean that the geoid does not fit the actual Earth in another part of the world. For example,
the UK Ordnance Survey uses a geoid based on a survey of 1936 (OS36), France has tended to
use the Nouvelle Triangulation de France (NTF) 1970 model, some other European countries
use the European Datum 1950 model (ED50), and the USA uses the World Geodetic System
1984 (WGS 84).
Use of different geoids can result in arriving at different values for defining latitude and
longitude. There can be differences of up to the order of 200 metres for positions on the
extremities of the European ED50 and the UK OS36. This may not sound much to an airline
pilot - though it would to the programmer of a cruise missile which was guided to latitude and
longitude coordinates! Until recently, these differences have not been considered significant,
but two recent developments, however, have changed this. These are the arrival of the Global
Positioning System (GPS) and the widespread use of Flight Management Systems (FMS).
GPS is an electronic navigation system in which aircraft receivers compare signals from several
of the 24 transmitters in the satellites which make up the GPS constellation. It can be received
over the whole globe and its accuracy is of the order of tens of metres. The system accuracy
is such that the differences in geoids becomes significant, and the system has world-wide
application. The US government adopted WGS 84 for GPS.
FMS compares the output of Inertial Reference Systems (IRS) with positions derived from range
information received from Distance Measuring Equipment (DME). The positions of the DME
stations are stored in latitude and longitude held in the data base of the FMS computer. DME
is a very accurate system and any inaccuracy in the datum positions would degrade the position
calculation of FMS. If the data base held the positions of all the UK DMEs in OS36 and the
French DMEs in NTF70, it could cause large discontinuities in the calculation of FMS position as
the aircraft crossed the English Channel.
3
1
Direction, Latitude and Longitude
For these reasons, ICAO has adopted WGS 84 as the world standard.
1
D In modern navigation systems, position information is corrected for the distortions of the
ire Earth’s shape automatically in the navigation computers.
c
t
io
n
, L For any calculations that you may be required to do for the EASA examination syllabus, the
a
t
itu Earth may be considered to be a true sphere with a circumference of 21 600 NM or 40 000 km.
d
e
a
n
d L The Poles
o
n
g
it
ud The Poles are defined as the extremities of the axis about which the Earth spins. The axis of
e
the Poles is inclined to the axis of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun at an angle of 23½°. This
topic will be covered more fully in the chapter on “Time”. However, in this chapter the polar
axis will be drawn upright.
Basic Direction on the Earth
To start to define directions on the Earth, a datum must be selected. The simplest datum is
the direction in which the Earth is spinning. This is then defined as East, hence sunrise in the
East. West is then defined as the opposite of East. Facing East, the pole on the left is called the
North Pole and the direction North is defined as the direction towards the North Pole. The
pole diametrically opposite the North Pole is called the South Pole and the direction South is
defined as being opposite to North.
Figure 1.1 Earth’s rotation Figure 1.2 Cardinal and quadrantal points
shown in ‘elevation’
These directions, North, South, East and West are known as Cardinal Points. The midway
directions between North(N), East(E), South(S), West(W) and North(N) are North-East (NE),
South-East (SE), South-West (SW) , and North-West (NW). These directions are known as the
Quadrantal directions.
To solve navigation problems, the student may occasionally need to consider the Earth when
viewed from above either the North Pole or the South Pole. When viewed from above the
North Pole, the Earth appears to rotate in an anticlockwise (counter- clockwise) direction.
When viewed from above the South Pole, the Earth appears to rotate in a clockwise direction.
4