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C ontents Preface viii Acknowledgments x Chapter 1: C Overview 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 The Concept of Algorithms and Pseudocodes 2 1.2 Flowcharts 8 1.3 Compiler Overview 15 1.4 Assembler, Linker, and Loader 19 1.5 Structure of a Simple “Hello World” Program in C 22 1.6 O verview of the Compilation and Execution Process in an Integrated Development Environment (preferably CodeBlock) 30 Summary 32 Exercises 32 Chapter 2: Programming Using C 35 2.0 Introduction 35 2.1 Preprocessor Directives/Compiler Directives/C Preprocessor 35 2.2 C Primitive Input-Output using getchar and putchar 40 2.3 Simple Input/Output 42 2.4 Function Calls from a Library 44 2.5 Data Types in C 44 2.6 Enumeration 47 2.7 Operators 51 2.8 Type Casting (or Coercion) in C 62 vi • Contents 2.9 Conditional Executing Using If-Else 63 2.10 Switch and Break 68 2.11 T he Concept of Loops—While Loop, Do-While Loop, For Loop, Nested Loops, Break Statement, Continue Statement 73 2.12 Storage Classes: Auto, Static, Extern, and Register 119 Summary 135 Exercises 135 Chapter 3: Arrays And Pointers 141 3.0 Introduction 141 3.1 1D, 2D, and 3D Arrays 142 3.2 The Concept of Subprogramming 212 3.3 Functions 213 3.4 P arameter Transmission Techniques—Call by Value and Call by Reference 228 3.5 Pointers 234 3.6 Relationship between Array and Pointer 239 3.7 Argument Passing Using Pointers 241 3.8 Array of Pointers 243 3.9 Passing Arrays as Arguments 244 Summary 269 Exercises 269 Chapter 4: Structures And Unions 275 4.0 Introduction 275 4.1 Structures versus Unions 296 4.2 Structures and Pointers 298 Summary 312 Exercise Questions 313 Chapter 5: File Handling In C 317 5.0 Introduction 317 5.1 File Pointers 317 5.2 Character Input / Output with Files 320 5.3 String I/O Functions 321 5.4 Integer I/O Functions 321 5.5 Formatted I/O Functions 322 5.6 Block (or Record) I/O Functions 323 Summary 338 Exercises 338 Contents • vii Appendices 341 A: C Programming Lab Projects 341 B: Keywords in C 343 C: Escape Sequences in C 344 D: Operator Precedence and Associativity 345 E: Standard Library String Functions 346 References 347 Index 349 P refaCe The right temperament required for research originates from the right expo- sure and environment that a student receives during study. And good books help in this direction. Programming is an art. You have to learn this art, as only then will you learn how to write good programs. This book is an outcome of lecture notes prepared during my long years of teaching Introduction to Programming (C), augmented by consulting a large number of books available on the subject. I thank my students, colleagues, and teachers, as well as all the authors who have helped in shaping my approach to this knowledge.