by JEANNETTE VAN DYK submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

607 Pages·2016·7.69 MB·English

THE MEDIATING EFFECT OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING PROFILE IN THE BULLYING
AND TURNOVER INTENTION RELATION

by

JEANNETTE VAN DYK

submitted in accordance with the requirements for
the degree of

DOCTOR OF COMMERCE

in the subject

INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

at the

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR MELINDE COETZEE

June 2016
DECLARATION

I, Jeannette van Dyk, student number 33107092, declare that this thesis, entitled “The
mediating effect of a psychological wellbeing profile in the bullying and turnover
intention relation”, is my own work, and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have
been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. This thesis has not, in
part or in whole, been previously submitted for any other degree or examination at this or any
other university.

I also declare that the study has been carried out in strict accordance with the Policy for
Research Ethics of the University of South Africa (Unisa). I took great care that the research
was conducted with the highest integrity, taking into account Unisa’s Policy for Infringement
and Plagiarism.

I further declare that ethical clearance to conduct the research has been obtained from the
Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, University of South Africa.
Permission to conduct the research has been obtained from the participating organisation.

_____________________________ _________________________
JEANNETTE VAN DYK DATE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Most importantly, to the Lord, for giving me the strength, and insight to complete this thesis.

My supervisor, Professor Melinde Coetzee, thank you for your passion for my research topic.
You are an extraordinary study leader. I greatly appreciate your prompt feedback, valuable
guidance and encouragement throughout the study.

Andries Masenge, I am so grateful for your remarkable assistance of the statistical analyses
of the research data. Thank you, Yvonne Smuts, for the prompt and efficient assistance with
the professional editing of this thesis. Siza Selahle thank you for the document formatting
and technical layout assistance. Prof Ian Rothmann thank you for your statistical analysis
support.

UNISA, thank you for providing me with the necessary financial support and academic
resources. Thank you to all the employees who participated in this research study.

My husband, Reghardt van Dyk, thank you for always believing in me and for your persistent
encouragement in my studies. Thank you for your tremendous support and assistance. I am
extremely grateful to have had your motivation, patience and understanding during this
challenging journey.

To my parents, Jaap and Anna-Marie Engelbrecht, thank you for raising me to have a
passion to develop myself further. I appreciate your continuous love, encouragement and
support over the years. Thank you for always being there for me.

To my father-in-law, Frik van Dyk, thank you for your extraordinary assistance and support
during the data collection process. I am incessantly greatful for your help. I would like to
express my sincere gratitude to Desré Engelbrecht. Thank you for your valuable assistance
during the data collection process.

To all my family members, friends and colleagues thank you for your motivation and moral
support. A special thanks to: Matita Tshabalala, Rodney Subramany, Jacoba Engelbrecht,
Johan Fourie, Nadia Botha, Melodie Koen, Bernice Houston, Adria Bulpitt, Nobantu
Masebelanga, Chantal Sham, Anna-Marie Engelbrecht Jnr., Hennie Malan, Trientjie Malan,
Malanie Tolmay, Salomé van Dyk, Corné van Dyk, Amelia Jordaan, Sharene Koopman, Ellie
Bezuidenhout and Lilandi Furstenburg.
iii
ABSTRACT / SUMMARY
THE MEDIATING EFFECT OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING PROFILE
IN THE BULLYING AND TURNOVER INTENTION RELATION
by
Jeannette van Dyk

SUPERVISOR : Prof. M. Coetzee
DEPARTMENT : Industrial and Organisational Psychology
DEGREE : DCom

The research focused on constructing a psychological wellbeing profile for employee wellness
and talent retention practices by investigating employees’ psychological wellbeing-related
attributes (constituting self-esteem, emotional intelligence, hardiness, work engagement and
psychosocial flourishing), and whether these significantly mediate the relation between their
experiences of bullying and their intention to leave the organisation when controlling for bullying,
age, gender, race, tenure and job level. A quantitative survey was conducted on a convenience
sample of employed adults (N = 373) of different age, gender, race, tenure and job level groups
from various South African organisations.

The canonical statistical procedures indicated work engagement (vigour, dedication and
absorption) and hardiness (commitment-alienation) as the strongest psychological wellbeing-
related dispositional attributes in the workplace bullying and turnover intention relationship. The
mediation modelling results showed that workplace bullying significantly predicted turnover
intention, which in turn, significantly predicted either high/low levels of work engagement (vigour
and dedication) in one’s work. Self-esteem, emotional intelligence or hardiness did not seem
likely to influence the relationship between workplace bullying and turnover intention.

The multiple regression analysis indicated that participants’ biographical variables (age, gender,
race and job level) significantly predicted workplace bullying, self-esteem, emotional intelligence,
hardiness, work engagement and psychosocial flourishing, and turnover intention. The tests for
significant mean differences indicated that participants from various biographical groups (age,
gender, race, tenure and job level) statistically significantly differed regarding workplace bullying
(independent variable), the psychological wellbeing-related variables, namely self-esteem,
emotional intelligence, hardiness, employee engagement, psychosocial flourishing (mediating
variables) and turnover intention (dependent variable).

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On a theoretical level, the study deepened understanding of the cognitive, affective and conative
behavioural dimensions of the hypothesised psychological wellbeing profile. On an empirical
level, the main findings were reported and interpreted in terms of an empirically derived
psychological wellbeing profile based on the work engagement of the participants. On a practical
level, the findings provided valuable guidelines for the development of talent retention and
wellness interventions, which might add to the body of knowledge relating to psychological
wellbeing-related dispositional attributes that influenced workplace bullying and talent retention.

Keywords: wellbeing profile, self-esteem, emotional intelligence, hardiness, work engagement,
psychological wellbeing, employee wellness, workplace bullying, turnover intention, intention to
leave, voluntary turnover

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT / SUMMARY ..................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. xix
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... xxi
CHAPTER 1: SCIENTIFIC OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH ............................................ 1
1.1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION FOR THE RESEARCH ................................... 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .........................................................................................13
1.2.1 Research questions arising from the literature review ........................................16
1.2.2 Research questions with regard to the empirical study ......................................17
1.3 AIMS OF THE RESEARCH ......................................................................................18
1.3.1 General aims of the research .................................................................................18
1.3.2 Specific aims of the research ................................................................................19
1.3.2.1 Literature review ...................................................................................................... 19
1.3.2.2 Empirical study ........................................................................................................ 20
1.4 STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE ............................................................................21
1.4.1 Potential contribution on a theoretical level .........................................................21
1.4.2 Potential contribution on an empirical level .........................................................22
1.4.3 Potential contribution on a practical level ............................................................22
1.5 THE RESEARCH MODEL ........................................................................................23
1.6 PARADIGM PERSPECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH ...............................................24
1.6.1 The intellectual climate ..........................................................................................24
1.6.1.1 Literature review ...................................................................................................... 24
1.6.1.2 Empirical research ................................................................................................... 26
1.6.2 The market of intellectual resources .....................................................................27
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1.6.2.1 Meta-theoretical statements ..................................................................................... 27
1.6.2.2 Conceptual descriptions ........................................................................................... 27
1.6.2.3 Central hypothesis ................................................................................................... 30
1.6.2.4 Theoretical assumptions .......................................................................................... 31
1.6.2.5 Methodological assumptions .................................................................................... 31
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN ...............................................................................................33
1.7.1 Exploratory research ..............................................................................................33
1.7.2 Descriptive research ...............................................................................................33
1.7.3 Explanatory research .............................................................................................34
1.7.4 Validity .....................................................................................................................34
1.7.4.1 Validity with regard to the literature .......................................................................... 34
1.7.4.2 Validity with regard to the empirical research ........................................................... 35
1.7.5 Reliability .................................................................................................................37
1.7.6 The unit of research ................................................................................................37
1.7.7 The variables ...........................................................................................................38
1.7.8 Delimitations ...........................................................................................................39
1.7.9 The potential limitations of cross-sectional quantitative research design .........40
1.8 RESEARCH METHOD .............................................................................................40
1.8.1 Phase 1: Literature review .....................................................................................42
1.8.2 Phase 2: The empirical study ................................................................................43
1.9 CHAPTER DIVISION ................................................................................................44
1.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY .............................................................................................46
CHAPTER 2: META-THEORETICAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY: EMPLOYEE
WELLNESS AND TALENT RETENTION ............................................................................47
2.1 TALENT RETENTION IN THE 21st CENTURY WORKPLACE ...............................47
2.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING AND BULLYING AS ANTECEDENTS OF
TURNOVER INTENTION .........................................................................................53
2.3 ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF TURNOVER INTENTION .................58
2.4 CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................64
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2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY .............................................................................................66
CHAPTER 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING .................................................................68
3.1 CONCEPTUALISATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING ATTRIBUTES .......68
3.1.1 Self-esteem .............................................................................................................68
3.1.1.1 Conceptualisation of self-esteem ............................................................................. 69
3.1.1.2 Theoretical models .................................................................................................. 79
3.1.1.3 Variables influencing self-esteem............................................................................. 89
3.1.2 Emotional intelligence ............................................................................................91
3.1.2.1 Conceptualisation of emotional intelligence ............................................................. 91
3.1.2.2 Theoretical models ................................................................................................ 103
3.1.2.3 Variables influencing emotional intelligence ........................................................... 114
3.1.3 Hardiness .............................................................................................................. 117
3.1.3.1 Conceptualisation of hardiness .............................................................................. 117
3.1.3.2 Theoretical models ................................................................................................ 124
3.1.3.3 Variables influencing the development of hardiness .............................................. 131
3.1.4 Work engagement ................................................................................................. 133
3.1.4.1 Conceptualisation of work engagement ................................................................. 133
3.1.4.2 Theoretical models ................................................................................................ 143
3.1.4.3 Variables influencing work engagement ................................................................. 152
3.1.5 Psychosocial flourishing...................................................................................... 154
3.1.5.1 Conceptualisation of psychosocial flourishing ........................................................ 154
3.1.5.2 Theoretical models ................................................................................................ 162
3.1.5.3 Variables influencing the development of psychosocial flourishing......................... 171
3.2 IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE ........................................................................... 174
3.2.1 Self-esteem ........................................................................................................... 174
3.2.2 Emotional intelligence .......................................................................................... 175
3.2.3 Hardiness .............................................................................................................. 176
3.2.4 Work engagement ................................................................................................. 177
3.2.5 Psychosocial flourishing...................................................................................... 178
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3.3 EVALUATION OF THE RESEARCH LITERATURE .............................................. 185
3.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY ........................................................................................... 194
CHAPTER 4: WORKPLACE BULLYING AND TURNOVER INTENTION ........................ 195
4.1 WORKPLACE BULLYING ..................................................................................... 195
4.1.1 Conceptualisation of workplace bullying ............................................................ 195
4.1.1.1 Types of bullying .................................................................................................... 201
4.1.1.2 Workplace aggression ........................................................................................... 203
4.1.1.3 Workplace violence ................................................................................................ 204
4.1.1.4 Workplace harassment .......................................................................................... 204
4.1.1.5 Witnesses of workplace bullying ............................................................................ 205
4.1.1.6 Workplace bullying and wellbeing .......................................................................... 206
4.1.1.7 Workplace bullying and turnover intention .............................................................. 209
4.1.1.8 Roles in the bullying relationship ............................................................................ 210
4.1.1.9 Antecedents of bullying .......................................................................................... 212
4.1.2 Theoretical models of workplace bullying .......................................................... 216
4.1.2.1 Cognitive activation theory of stress ....................................................................... 216
4.1.2.2 Employee emotional abuse model ......................................................................... 219
4.1.2.3 Affective events theory ........................................................................................... 222
4.1.2.4 The conceptual model of workplace bullying .......................................................... 224
4.1.3 Variables influencing workplace bullying ........................................................... 231
4.1.3.1 Biological factors .................................................................................................... 231
4.1.3.2 Early life experiences ............................................................................................. 231
4.1.3.3 Early development ................................................................................................. 232
4.1.3.4 Personality ............................................................................................................. 233
4.1.3.5 Organisational factors ............................................................................................ 233
4.1.3.6 Influence of age ..................................................................................................... 234
4.1.3.7 Influence of gender ................................................................................................ 234
4.1.3.8 Culture and climate ................................................................................................ 235
4.1.3.9 Mental distress ....................................................................................................... 235
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4.2 TURNOVER INTENTION ....................................................................................... 236
4.2.1 Conceptualisation of turnover intention ............................................................. 236
4.2.1.1 Turnover intention and supervision ........................................................................ 238
4.2.1.2 Turnover intention and work engagement .............................................................. 239
4.2.1.3 Turnover intention and stress (psychological wellbeing) ........................................ 240
4.2.1.4 Turnover intention and negative behaviour (bullying) ............................................. 240
4.2.1.5 Turnover intention and employee psychopathy ...................................................... 241
4.2.1.6 Antecedents of turnover intention........................................................................... 242
4.2.2 Theoretical models of turnover intention ............................................................ 246
4.2.2.1 The social exchange theory ................................................................................... 246
4.2.2.2 The process model of turnover .............................................................................. 248
4.2.2.3 The cusp-catastrophe model .................................................................................. 250
4.2.2.4 The unfolding model of turnover ............................................................................ 252
4.2.2.5 The turnover intention model ................................................................................. 255
4.2.3 Variables influencing turnover intention ............................................................. 261
4.2.3.1 Influence of age ..................................................................................................... 261
4.2.3.2 Influence of gender ................................................................................................ 262
4.2.3.3 Marital status ......................................................................................................... 262
4.2.3.4 Influence of tenure and experience ........................................................................ 262
4.2.3.5 Level of education .................................................................................................. 263
4.2.3.6 Influence of work/family ......................................................................................... 263
4.2.3.7 Work environment .................................................................................................. 264
4.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE ........................................................................... 265
4.3.1 Workplace bullying ............................................................................................... 265
4.3.2 Turnover intention ................................................................................................ 269
4.4 EVALUATION OF RESEARCH LITERATURE ...................................................... 276
4.5 THEORETICAL INTEGRATION TOWARDS A PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
PROFILE ................................................................................................................ 277
4.6 EVALUATION ........................................................................................................ 289
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