Britannica Book of the Year 1983

770 Pages·76.16 MB·English

by  Encyclopaedia Britannica

1983
BRITANNICA
BOOK OF THE YEAR
1983
BRITANNICA
BOOK OF THE YEAR
ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
CHICAGO
AUCKLAND, GENEVA, LONDON, MANILA, PARIS, ROME, SEOUL, SYDNEY, TOKYO, TORONTO
©1983
BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
Copyright Under International Copyright Union
All Rights Reserved Under Pan American and Universal Copyright Conventions
by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 38-12082
International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-407-7
International Standard Serial Number: 0068-1156
No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR
(Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.)
Printed in U.S.A.
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
The Britannica Book of the Year is published with the editorial advice
of the faculties of the University of Chicago.
Editor-in-Chief, Yearbooks James Ertel
Editors Daphne Daume, Chicago
J. E. Davis, London
Editorial Staff David Calhoun, Charles Cegielski,
Karen Jacobs Justin, Arthur Latham;
R. M. Goodwin, Louise Watson, London
Advisers Martin E. Marty, Drummond Rennie, M.D.
Correspondents Joan Harris, Toronto
Richard Grott, Sydney
Shigeki Hijino, Tokyo
Sergio A. Sarmiento, Mexico City
J. Amaral, Rio de Janeiro
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Geography Staff Anup K. Dam, Donna R. Falk,
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Chandrika Kaul, Jean M. Neal,
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ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
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President Charles E. Swanson
CONTENTS
8 Feature article: The Great Disarmament Debate by Lawrence Freedman
A professor of war studies at the University of London who has written extensively on the
subject of nuclear strategy, Lawrence Freedman examines the current public pressure for
disarmament, particularly in Western Europe and the U.S. He traces the history of arms control
and disarmament attempts since World War I and discusses the outlook for arms limitation.
15 Feature article: The Russian Giant: 60 Years After Formation of the Soviet Union
by Zhores A. and Roy A. Medvedev
Two famous Soviet authors, Zhores A. and Roy A. Medvedev, have written an enlightening
article that details the flow of events in the U.S.S.R., from the formation of the Soviet Union in
1922 to the death of Leonid Brezhnev and the ascent to power of Yury Andropov.
22 Calendar of Events of 1983
26 Chronology of Events of 1982
A month-by-month summary of the significant events of 1982.
52 Unusual but Noteworthy Events
Peculiar and unusual happenings that were reported around the world in 1982.
56 Disasters
A catalog of the most destructive events of 1982, including man-made and natural disasters.
60 Feature article: “You Can't Foreclose a Country" by F. lotin Mathis
An international economist for one of the largest U.S. commercial banks explains who owes
what to whom in the world today and why banks find it necessary to continue lend ing money to
debtor nations that are already behind in their repayments. He discusses the problems plaguing
debtor nations and explains the difficulty some nations are having in meeting their obligations
in world money markets.
65 Feature article: Stresses in the Western Alliance by Edward Heath
The Western Alliance, which took shape in Europe after World War II, is facing what many
believe is its most serious crisis. A former British prime minister, Edward Heath possesses
first-hand knowledge of the tensions besetting the alliance, and in a clearly written article he
tells what they are and how they came about.
People of the Year
Individuals around the world whose names figured prominently in the news in 1982:
70 Biographies
96 Nobel Prizes
99 Obituaries
129 Feature article: China's Uncertain Future by Richard H. Solomon
The teeming, sprawling nation of China has long been a mystery to Westerners. Richard H.
Solomon of the Rand Corporation, a noted sinologist who has traveled extensively in China,
brings his understand ing of its history and peoples to this article tel I ing why China has remained
a largely agrarian society instead of becoming an industrial power like its neighbour Japan and
why it is so difficult to predict China's future.
138 Excerpts from the 1983 Printing of Encyclopaedia Britannica
149-738 Book of the Year
An alphabetically organized treatment of the people, places, and developments of significance
during 1982, includingthe following areas:
Economic Development
Environment and Natural Resources
Food and Agriculture
Health and Disease
Human Affairs
Industrial Review
Literature and the Arts
National and International Affairs
Science and Technology
Social Sciences
Sports and Games
Special Reports on many subjects
Frontispiece photo credits (page 149): (top left) Milner—Sygma; (top right) Cindy Karp—Black
Star; (centre left) Franceschi—Sygma; (centre right and bottom) Sygma
739 Contributors
747 Index Cumulative for issues of 1981, 1982, and 1983
SPECIAL REPORTS
181 Archaeology: The Raising of the "Mary Rose"
In October a 1 7-year project to raise one of Henry Vlll's warships, which sank in 1545, was
completed. Margaret Rule, who headed the committee to raise the "Mary Rose," describes
the efforts that went into this undertaking to salvage a specimen of British naval history.
202 Australia: Tasmania Debates Progress
Tasmania lacks jobs because it lacks energy. There is a potential for hydroelectric energy,
but developing it would mean damming some of Tasmania's most beautiful rivers and
conservationists are vigorously opposed. A. R. C. Griffiths describes the debate.
229 Canada: Strains Along the Border
The traditionally cordial and cooperative relations between Canada and the U.S. are becoming
strained for a number of reasons. Canadian parliamentary observer and newsman Peter Ward
lists the causes of dissension between these two North American neighbours.
263 Crime and Law Enforcement: Computers Don't Sin: People Do
With computers becoming more and more commonplace, the possibilities for computer crimes
are increasing. A computer specialist, Donn B. Parker, details the kinds of crime being
committed with computers and the efforts to thwart potential wrongdoers.
285 Defense: Lessons from the Falklands
The Falklands conflict was a curious sort of war, fought in an area 400 miles from one of the
combatants and 8,000 miles from the other. Old fashioned in some ways, it also provided the
first test in battle of various ultramodern weapons systems. Robin Ranger describes how the
conflict was waged and examines its possible lessons for the world's military planners.
335 Education: The Promise of Early Learning
Every mother knows that her baby is probably the smartest one in the world, and she is probably
right, accordingto James M. Wolf, director of U.S. Department of Defense Dependents Schools,
Panama Region. Dr. Wolf discusses the learning potential of very young children and the
pioneers who are helping mothers to learn how to utilize that potential.
415 Health and Disease: The New Prohibition
Richard Whittingham has written an engrossing report in which he draws parallels between the
rum runners of the Prohibition era and the drug smugglers of today. Upon investigation, it
became clear that they and their methods are amazingly similar.
465 japan: Japan's Economic Secret
Those who marvel at the Japanese industrial machine will come to understand why it is so
successful when they read Frank Gibney's account. Gibney traces how management-labour-
government cooperation transformed a once medieval nation into a modern industrial power.
485 Libraries: The "New" Censors
When Huckleberry Finn was removed from the library of the Mark Twain school in Fairfax, Va.,
it caused immediate concern in publishing and civil libertarian circles. Self-appointed censors
have become more and more active in recent years. John Berry, editor in chief of Library
journal, examines their techniques and finds that the situation is not altogether new.
497 Life Sciences: Reevaluating Darwin
One hundred years after the death of Charles Darwin, controversy still swirls around his theory
of evolution. Jeremy Cherfas describes current thinking about Darwin's theory, including some
of the knowledge that supports it and some that seems to refute it.
556 Nigeria: Africa's Awakening Giant
Africa's largest and currently most successful black nation, though still facing many difficulties,
is rapidly becoming both example and spokesman for the continent. So says Guy Arnold, a
free-lance writer living in London, in a report that analyzes this new power on the world scene.
586 Race Relations: The Latinization of the U.S.
High immigration (some legal and some illegal) and high birthrates have combined to produce
large Hispanic populations that are changing the cultural complexion of many U.S. cities. In a
revealing report, John T. Kenna, a writer specializing in cultural affairs, describes the similarities
and differences within the Hispanic community and its—as yet unrealized—political potential.
601 Religion: New Roles for Women
The percentage of people in seminaries who are women has risen each year for the last decade.
More and more women are being ordained, and many are rising to positions of power and
influence within church bodies. Martin E. Marty, one of the best-known theologians in the U.S.,
appraises the current position of women in organized religion.
627 Space Exploration: Who Benefits from the Shuttle?
The successful flights of the U.S. space shuttle "Columbia" demonstrated that this expensive
vehicle is not a toy but is capable of performing much useful work. Dave Doolingdescribes the
benefits that can accrue to industry and to the public at large from the space shuttle flights.
656 Television and Radio: Revolution in the Soaps
When the prime-time soap opera "Dallas" attracted nearly 90 million viewers for its episode
revealing "who shot J.R.," it was apparent that the soaps, once confined to the daytime TV
ghetto, had come of age. Robert Feder of theCh/cago Sun-Times has written an account of how
the soaps gained respectability and even social significance.
698 United States: PAC's—The New Force in Politics
Laws sometimes have unintended results, an example being the U.S. electoral reforms that
resulted in the growth of Political Action Committees (PAC's). These powerful groups,
according to Time magazine correspondent David Beckwith, are changing the way parties
function, the way elections are conducted, and even the way the government operates.
ALLAN TANNENBAUM—SYGMA
THE GREAT
DISARMAMENT DEBATE
by Lawrence Freedman
Great armaments lead inevitably to war. The increase of ar¬ German naval competition, nor was it possible to
maments . . . produces a consciousness of the strength of point to military machines impressing their own
other nations and a sense of fear.
timetables on a crisis and forcing the hand of the
This comment of British foreign secretary Sir Edward diplomats. Memories of interwar efforts to promote
Grey on the Anglo-German naval arms race gained disarmament were of cynical wrangling and dead¬
immense authority with the subsequent onset of locks. Those treaties that had been adopted failed to
World War I. He appeared to have identified a virtu¬ affect the course of the war, with the possible ex¬
al Law of International Relations. According to this ception of the 1925 Geneva Protocol outlawing the
law, those who wished to prevent further war must use of poison gas. No disarmament treaty could
prevent further arms races. The key to this was disar¬ have prevented Belsen and Auschwitz.
mament: fixing the armed forces of all countries at In plans for a postwar world, centred on the new
the lowest possible level. United Nations, the prevention of further conflicts
Seventy years later voices are warning once again was seen to lie in the political rather than the mili¬
that an arms race must inevitably end in catastrophe. tary sphere. The victorious powers expected to
The warnings are given even greater urgency by the maintain military capabilities that would enable
fact that the weapons involved are nuclear and the them to act swiftly and decisively against any re¬
consequences of their use would move beyond newed outbreaks of aggression. Otherwise, as in
mass slaughter to the destruction of whole civiliza¬ 1918, after years of full mobilization and having im¬
tions. In these circumstances, the cause of disarma¬ posed total disarmament on their defeated enemies,
ment is understandably popular. However, the rela¬ the Allies were only too happy to run down their
tionship between arms races and war is not a simple own armed forces as quickly as possible.
one of cause and effect. Wars are not just the prod¬ Nevertheless, disarmament was still high on the
uct of the accumulation of armaments but reflect international agenda. The reason was the impres¬
real conflicts over such things as territory and ideol¬ sion of awesome power and destructiveness created
ogy. To address the arms race without considering by the atomic bomb, whose use against the Japanese
the political differences between nations is often to cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had dramatically
address the symptoms rather than the cause. Fur¬ ended the war. Whatever might be done about the
thermore, as is evident from a survey of postwar generality of weapons, urgent action was needed in
efforts at disarmament and the current debate, un¬ this special case. Even in the United States, with its
less the underlying political differences can be mod¬ monopoly of atomic weapons, there was a disposi¬
erated, the "arms race" symptoms are extremely re¬ tion to nip this dangerous new development in the
sistant to treatment. bud. Accordingly, in 1946 the U.S. put forward a
After Hiroshima. The pro-disarmament sentiment plan to internationalize atomic technology and pre¬
of 1918 was not evident in the international com¬ vent its full exploitation for military purposes.
munity in 1945. Explanations of the origins of World Unfortunately, the U.S. plan was framed in such a
War II looked more to a failure to react to the Ger¬ manner as to excite Soviet suspicions, and it soon
man military challenge of the 1930s than to an arms got bogged down with the onset of the cold war.
race. There had been no equivalent to the Anglo- The political conditions became unfavourable, and
the relevant UN committees devoted themselves to
scoring propaganda points rather than serious nego¬
Lawrence Freedman is professor of war studies at
tiating. The warning signs were the tendencies to¬
King's College, University of London. He is the author
ward utopian and all-embracing plans. Argument
of The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy and Britain and Nu¬
clear Weapons. could not be limited to the area of atomic weapons,
9
where for much of the 1950s the U.S. had a clear close to the brink, the leaders of the U.S. and the
lead, but inevitably began to include all other weap¬ U.S.S.R. resolved to develop a less stressful relation¬
ons as well. Why should the West forgo its nuclear ship. Additional help was provided by advances in
superiority if the East would not relinquish its con¬ satellite reconnaissance that began to open up Sovi¬
ventional superiority? So the discussion got tangled et and U.S. territories to each other's penetrating
up in military and political complexities. Agreement gaze. As there was little that could be done about
depended on an understanding between the super¬ this, it became recognized as a reliable means of ver¬
powers, but their antagonism prevented any agree¬ ification. In the ensuing decade, arms control
ment. American suspicions of Soviet secrecy meant chalked up some impressive achievements: the
that the U.S. put an enormous premium on methods 1963 Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty, which, while failing
to verify compliance with the provisions of any trea¬ to be comprehensive, banned atmospheric explo¬
ty by making the closed Soviet society as transparent sions and so eased public anxieties over the harmful
as possible. Still, neither side wished to appear re¬ effects of radioactive fallout; the 1966 Outer Space
sponsible for dashing international disarmament Treaty, which kept nuclear weapons out of space;
hopes, so Washington and Moscow engaged in a the 1968 Non-proliferation Treaty, which con¬
sort of competitive bidding, putting forward ever strained the spread of military nuclear technology;
more elaborate and fanciful schemes to ensure Gen¬ the 1970 Seabed Treaty; and, as the first substantive
eral and Complete Disarmament. result of the strategic arms limitation talks (salt) be¬
Arms Control. Long before this futile process gun by the superpowers in 1969, the 1972 treaty lim¬
reached its peak at the start of the 1960s, moves had iting antiballistic missiles. This last pact, combined
begun on a more fruitful approach to the regulation with a short-term agreement putting a ceiling on the
of armaments. This approach came to be known as numbers of offensive nuclear weapons, became
arms control. It accepted that nuclear weapons and known as salt I.
East-West antagonism would be features of interna¬ By 1972, with detente in full swing, there seemed
tional life for many years. The challenge was to find every reason to believe that the pattern of regular
ways to reduce the consequent dangers. If the nu¬ agreements would continue. The next stage was to
clear threat could not be eliminated, it could at least be a more comprehensive treaty on offensive nucle¬
be contained. If a military paralysis based on a bal¬ ar arms, and at Vladivostok, U.S.S.R., in December
ance of terror was developing, then perhaps this 1974, Leonid Brezhnev, general secretary of the
coula be fortified to remove temptations to settle Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and U.S. Pres.
differences once and for all in some decisive battle, Gerald Ford announced the framework for an agree¬
or to rush from crisis to war in a preemptive strike ment. Meanwhile, in 1973, NATO and the Warsaw
through fear of being caught napping. Pact had begun to discuss ways of reducing the bur¬
Superpower political relations had to ease to give den of conventional forces in central Europe in the
even this modest approach an opportunity to show talks held in Vienna on mutual and balanced force
its potential. The opportunity came after the Octo¬ reductions.
ber 1962 Cuban missile crisis when, having gone so Loss of Momentum. This promise was not ful¬
filled. After acrimonious and difficult negotiations, a
A drawing by a survivor of the Nagasaki atomic bomb blast de¬ salt ii treaty was agreed on in June 1979, but it was
picts the blackened body of a five-year-old boy raising his not ratified by the U.S. Senate. The Vienna talks
arms to heaven.
failed to overcome fundamental disagreements over
data. A set of arms control initiatives undertaken in
1977 to breathe life into the enterprise—concerning
a variety of issues ranging from a comprehensive
test ban to limits on antisatellite and chemical weap¬
ons and reform of the arms trade—all faltered. One
reason was the loss of momentum in detente, large¬
ly as a result of superpower rivalries and interven¬
tions in the third world (particularly by the Soviet
Union). Under these conditions, negotiations be¬
came tougher, with greater domestic suspicion of
the motives of the other side.
Another problem was uncertainty over objectives,
at least in the West. This was part of a general uncer¬
tainty about strategic doctrine, revolving around ar¬
guments over whether all that was necessary for
DRAWING BY MASATO YAMASHITA
10