Bourgeois Europe, 1850– 1914 Now in its second edition, Bourgeois Europe, 1850– 1914 is a general history of Europe from the middle of the nineteenth century to the outbreak of the First World War, a successor to Revolutionary Europe: 1780– 1850, also available from Routledge. The book offers wide geographic coverage of the European continent, from the Arctic Circle to the Mediterranean and from the Atlantic to the Urals. Topical coverage is equally broad, including major trends and events in international relations and domestic politics, in social and gender structures, in the economy, and in the natural and social sciences, the humanities, religion and the arts. For this second edition, the text has been completely revised, the latest directions in historical research considered, the further reading brought up to date and special attention has been paid to Europe’s global interactions with the rest of the world and the structures and norms of gender relations. Tables, charts, maps and other explanatory features help students explore further in the areas that interest them. Written in sprightly, jargon- free clear prose, the book is ideal for use as a text in secondary school or university courses, as well as for general readers wishing to gain an overview of a crucial era of modern European history. Jonathan Sperber is the Curators’ Distinguished Professor of History, Emeritus at the University of Missouri. He has written extensively on the social, political and religious history of Europe in the century between 1815 and 1914. Longman History of Modern Europe In this series: Europe 1850– 1914 Progress, Participation and Apprehension Jonathan Sperber Revolutionary Europe 1780– 1850 Jonathan Sperber Europe Contested From the Kaiser to Brexit Harold James Bourgeois Europe, 1850– 1914, 2nd Edition Progress, Participation and Apprehension Jonathan Sperber For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Longman- History- of- Modern- Europe/ book- series/ PEAMODE Bourgeois Europe, 1850– 1914 Second edition Jonathan Sperber Cover image: Seurat, Georges. A Sunday on La Grande Jatte, 1884– 86. Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection, Art Institute of Chicago. First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Jonathan Sperber The right of Jonathan Sperber to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978- 0- 8153- 6478- 8 (hbk) ISBN: 978- 0- 8153- 6479- 5 (pbk) ISBN: 978- 1- 351- 10661- 0 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/ 9781351106610 Typeset in Goudy by Newgen Publishing UK To the memory of my paternal grandparents, Nathan Sperber and Fanny née Dolberg, one-t ime loyal subjects of the Habsburg emperor Franz Joseph, and my personal link to the now- vanished world of pre- 1914 Europe. Contents List of Tables xi List of Charts xii List of Boxes xiii List of Maps xiv Preface to the Second Edition xv Introduction 1 PART I Progress and Realism, 1850– 1875 7 1 The Shape of an Era 9 Population and the Economy 11 Creating Economic Growth 12 Agriculture, Crafts and Commerce in an Industrial World 18 Europe’s Economy in the World 22 Prosperity and Population 24 2 Social Structures and Social Institutions 29 Urban Life 29 3 The Arts and Sciences 45 Expanding the Cultural Universe 45 Science on the Advance 48 Progress and Positivism in the Human Sciences 53 Revealed Religion Facing an Age of Progress 56 The Arts under the Banner of Realism 58 4 The Politics of the People 63 An Era of Reform 63 The Reign of the Notables 66 viii Contents Liberalism and Nationalism 68 Old Political Tendencies in a New Environment 70 5 The Politics of the Powers 80 Eurocentric Diplomacy 80 Foreign Policy and Public Opinion 81 The Changing Nature and Importance of Warfare 82 6 The Dynamics of Power 87 The Age of Reaction, 1850– 1859 87 Politics in Movement, 1859– 1871 96 Notes to Part I 120 PART II Doubt and Uncertainty, 1871– 1895 123 7 The Shape of an Era 125 Population and the Economy 127 Industry in “Profitless Prosperity” 131 Agriculture in Crisis 135 A Different Face of Global Interactions 137 Crafts and Commerce in Depressed Circumstances 138 Population Movements: Old Trends and New 140 8 Social Structures and Social Institutions 143 Urbanization as Routine 143 Extension and Expansion of Voluntary Associations 144 Expansion, Extension and Tentative Transformation of Public Education 149 9 The Arts and Sciences 155 A More Ambivalent Forward March of Science 156 The Social Sciences Reoriented and Realigned 159 Progress and its Discontents 163 The Arts in Transition 166 10 The Politics of the People 173 High Point and Crisis of Liberalism 173 Forms of Opposition to Liberalism 177 Radicalism Divided and Transformed 182 Nationalism, Racism and Anti- Semitism 185 Contents ix 11 The Politics of the Powers 188 Bismarck’s Alliance System 188 The Return of the Eastern Question 190 Rise of the “New Imperialism” 193 12 The Dynamics of Power 204 Political Strife and International Tensions in the 1870s 205 A Conservative Turn in the 1880s 213 An Uncertain Beginning of the 1890s 219 Notes to Part II 224 PART III Modernity and Modernism, 1890– 1914 227 13 The Shape of an Era 229 Population and the Economy 231 A Second Industrial Revolution 233 Shifting Centers of Industry 238 Agriculture, Crafts, Finance and Commerce 243 Rapid Population Movements 247 An Age of the “First Globalization”? 252 14 Social Structures and Social Institutions 255 Society in the Age of the Second Industrial Revolution 255 The Presence of the City 261 High Point and Transformation of Voluntary Associations 265 Intimations of a Consumer Society 269 A New Gender Order? 276 15 The Arts and Sciences 282 A New World of Science 282 Social Science between Reason and the Irrational 289 The Rise of Artistic Modernism 293 16 The Politics of the People 299 Structures of Mass Politics 300 Issues of Mass Politics 304 Realignments and Confrontations of Mass Politics 313 17 The Politics of the Powers 321 Growing Opposition to European Overseas Expansion 322 The Eastern Question Yet Again 325