Biomechanics of the Upper Limbs : Mechanics, Modeling and Musculoskeletal Injuries

528 Pages·2011·8.354 MB·English

by  Freivalds, Andris

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C M Y CM MY CY CMY K
Biomedical Engineering FREIVALDS
BIOMECHANICS
OF THE
UPPER LIMBS
O B
F I
O
MECHANICS, MODELING T
AND MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURIES H M
SECOND EDITION E
E
U
ANDRIS FREIVALDS C
P
H
There is already a wealth of literature covering cumulative trauma disorders and medical management, as well P
as the biomechanics of manual material handling and lower back problems. However, despite a spike in the A
E
number of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSDs) in the upper limbs—due to a sharp increase
N
in the amount of computer-related jobs—few if any books have focused exclusively on WRMSDs, until now. R
I
Biomechanics of the Upper Limbs: Mechanics, Modeling and Musculoskeletal Injuries, Second Edition
LC
offers vital information and tools to improve analysis of external forces and their effects on the human body.
This can help ergonomists better understand job stressors and the role they play in the development of disorders, I
S
enabling them to modify the work environment and educate practitioners to better control harmful situations. M
Using the author’s medical and engineering expertise to distill essential subject matter and useful technical B
data, this comprehensive text explores:
S
• Biomechanics of the upper limbs and the motor control system
• The structure and physiology of the human musculoskeletal and neuromuscular systems
• Recent research findings and solutions to various ergonomic problems
SECOND
• Models of various components of the neuromuscular systems, as well as larger systems in the upper limbs
EDITION
• Risk factors for disorders and tools used to identify their causes
Designed as a textbook for a typical semester-long graduate-level engineering or kinesiology course, this book
includes a link to an ancillary website that offers materials such as PowerPoint® slides, sample exams, and an
instructor's manual with complete solutions. It also serves as a practical, up-to-date, engineering-oriented
resource for researchers, industrial ergonomists, industrial hygienists, and medical professionals who require
supplementary material.
91190
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BIOMECHANICS
O F T H E
UPPER LIMBS
MECHANICS, MODELING
AND MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURIES
SECOND EDITION

BIOMECHANICS
O F T H E
UPPER LIMBS
M , M
ECHANICS ODELING
M I
AND USCULOSKELETAL NJURIES
SECOND EDITION
A F
NDRIS REIVALDS
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Version Date: 20110725
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-9120-5 (eBook - PDF)
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Contents
List of Figures ..............................................................................................................................xiii
List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................xxv
Preface .........................................................................................................................................xxix
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................xxxi
Author .......................................................................................................................................xxxiii
1. Introduction to Biomechanics ..............................................................................................1
1.1 What Is Biomechanics? .................................................................................................1
1.2 Basic Concepts ...............................................................................................................1
1.3 Coordinate Systems ......................................................................................................3
1.4 Force Vector Algebra.....................................................................................................4
1.5 Static Equilibrium .........................................................................................................7
1.6 Anthropometry and Center of Mass Determination .............................................11
1.7 Friction ..........................................................................................................................17
1.8 Dynamics .....................................................................................................................19
Questions ................................................................................................................................24
Problems ..................................................................................................................................25
References ...............................................................................................................................28
2. Structure of the Musculoskeletal System ........................................................................29
2.1 Gross Overview of Movements .................................................................................29
2.2 Skeletal System ............................................................................................................32
2.3 Mechanical Properties of Bone .................................................................................35
2.4 Soft Connective Tissue ...............................................................................................38
2.5 Joints ..............................................................................................................................41
2.5.1 Articular Joints ...............................................................................................41
2.5.2 Joint Lubrication .............................................................................................43
2.5.3 Wear and Osteoarthritis ...............................................................................44
2.5.4 Cartilaginous Joints .......................................................................................44
Questions ................................................................................................................................45
Problems ..................................................................................................................................45
References ...............................................................................................................................46
3. Neuromuscular Physiology and Motor Control .............................................................49
3.1 Introduction to Musculature .....................................................................................49
3.2 Structure of Muscle .....................................................................................................50
3.3 Basic Cell Physiology ..................................................................................................53
3.4 Nervous System ...........................................................................................................56
3.5 Excitation–Contraction Sequence .............................................................................57
3.6 Motor Units ..................................................................................................................59
3.6.1 Types of Motor Units .....................................................................................59
3.6.2 Motor-Unit Twitch .........................................................................................60
v
vi Contents
3.7 Basic Muscle Properties (Mechanics) .......................................................................62
3.7.1 Active Length–Tension Relationship ..........................................................63
3.7.2 Passive Length–Tension Relationship .........................................................64
3.7.3 Velocity–Tension Relationship .....................................................................65
3.7.4 Active State Properties ..................................................................................66
3.7.5 Developments Leading to Hill’s Muscle Model ........................................67
3.7.6 Fatigue and Endurance .................................................................................67
3.8 Energy, Metabolism, and Heat Production .............................................................69
3.9 Receptors ......................................................................................................................72
3.9.1 Muscle Spindles .............................................................................................72
3.9.2 Golgi Tendon Organs ....................................................................................74
3.9.3 Other Receptors ..............................................................................................75
3.10 Reflexes and Motor Control .......................................................................................76
3.10.1 Stretch Reflex ..................................................................................................76
3.10.2 γ-Loop Control................................................................................................78
3.10.3 α–γ Coactivation .............................................................................................80
3.10.4 Reciprocal Inhibition .....................................................................................80
3.10.5 Clasp-Knife Reflex .........................................................................................81
3.10.6 Other Polysynaptic Reflexes .........................................................................82
Questions ................................................................................................................................83
Problems ..................................................................................................................................84
References ...............................................................................................................................84
4. Modeling of Muscle Mechanics ........................................................................................87
4.1 Laplace Transforms and Transfer Functions...........................................................87
4.1.1 Partial Fraction Expansion ...........................................................................88
4.1.2 Transfer Functions .........................................................................................93
4.2 Viscoelastic Theory .....................................................................................................93
4.3 Hill’s Muscle Models ..................................................................................................99
4.3.1 Active Muscle Response .............................................................................101
4.3.2 Force Buildup ...............................................................................................103
4.3.3 Stress Relaxation ..........................................................................................105
4.3.4 Creep ..............................................................................................................106
4.3.5 Time Constant ..............................................................................................107
4.4 Frequency Analysis ..................................................................................................108
4.4.1 Generalized Approach ................................................................................109
4.4.2 Magnitude and Phase Angle in the Frequency Domain .......................110
4.4.3 Magnitude and Phase Angle in the Laplace Domain ............................113
4.5 Frequency Analysis of Passive Muscle ..................................................................115
4.6 Hatze’s Multielement Model ...................................................................................117
4.7 Applications of the Hatze Muscle Model ..............................................................126
4.8 Control Theory and Motor Control ........................................................................127
4.8.1 Basic Concepts ..............................................................................................127
4.8.2 First-Order System .......................................................................................129
4.8.3 Second-Order System ..................................................................................129
4.8.4 Human Information Processing and Control of Movements ................135
Contents vii
4.9 Root-Locus Approach to Muscle Modeling ..........................................................138
4.9.1 Root-Locus Method .....................................................................................138
4.9.2 Muscle Spindle Model .................................................................................148
4.9.3 Time Delays ..................................................................................................152
4.9.4 Velocity Control............................................................................................155
4.9.5 Reflex Stiffness .............................................................................................155
Questions ..............................................................................................................................158
Problems ................................................................................................................................159
References .............................................................................................................................161
5. Models of the Upper Limbs ..............................................................................................165
5.1 Anatomy of the Hand and Wrist ............................................................................165
5.1.1 Bones of the Hand and Wrist .....................................................................165
5.1.2 Joints of the Hand ........................................................................................166
5.1.3 Muscles of the Forearm, Wrist, and Hand ...............................................167
5.1.4 Flexor Digitorum Profundus and Flexor Digitorum Superficialis .......167
5.1.5 Flexor Tendon Sheath Pulley Systems ......................................................168
5.1.6 Wrist Mechanics ...........................................................................................172
5.1.7 Select Finger Anthropometry Data ...........................................................173
5.2 Static Tendon-Pulley Models ...................................................................................175
5.3 Dynamic Tendon-Pulley Models ............................................................................179
5.4 Complex Tendon Models .........................................................................................181
5.4.1 Reduction Methods .....................................................................................181
5.4.2 Optimization Methods ................................................................................181
5.4.3 Combined Approaches ...............................................................................182
5.5 Two-Dimensional Hand Model ..............................................................................183
5.6 Direct Measurement Validation Studies ................................................................189
5.7 Critical Evaluation of Modeling Approaches .......................................................192
Questions ..............................................................................................................................196
Problems ................................................................................................................................197
References .............................................................................................................................197
6. Musculoskeletal Disorders and Risk Factors ...............................................................201
6.1 Extent of the Problem ...............................................................................................201
6.2 Common Musculoskeletal Disorders and Their Etiology ..................................202
6.2.1 Tendon Disorders .........................................................................................202
6.2.2 Muscle Disorders .........................................................................................205
6.2.3 Nerve Disorders ...........................................................................................206
6.2.4 Vascular Disorders ......................................................................................208
6.2.5 Bursa Disorders ............................................................................................209
6.2.6 Bone and Cartilage Disorders ....................................................................209
6.2.7 Myofascial Pain and Trigger Points ..........................................................209
6.2.8 Theories for MSD Causation ......................................................................212
6.3 Medical Diagnosis and Treatment of MSDs .........................................................212
6.4 Epidemiologic Approach to MSDs .........................................................................216
6.4.1 Introduction to Epidemiology ....................................................................216
6.4.2 Statistical Analyses ......................................................................................224
viii Contents
6.4.3 Multivariate Modeling ................................................................................231
6.4.4 Quality of Epidemiological Research .......................................................236
6.5 Scientific Research and Evidence for Occupational Risk Factors ......................247
6.5.1 Neck Disorders .............................................................................................247
6.5.2 Shoulder Disorders ......................................................................................248
6.5.3 Elbow Disorders ...........................................................................................249
6.5.4 Hand/Wrist: Carpal Tunnel Syndrome ....................................................249
6.5.5 Hand/Wrist: Tendinitis ..............................................................................250
6.5.6 Hand/Arm: Vibration Syndrome ..............................................................250
6.6 Scientific Research and Evidence for Psychosocial Risk Factors .......................251
6.7 Iatrogenesis: A Contrarian View ............................................................................254
6.8 Legal Issues ................................................................................................................255
Questions ..............................................................................................................................256
Problems ................................................................................................................................258
References .............................................................................................................................260
7. Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................271
7.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................271
7.2 Wrist- and Finger-Motion Measurements .............................................................271
7.2.1 Types of Measurement Devices .................................................................271
7.2.2 Calibration Methods ....................................................................................273
7.2.3 Static Measurements: Range of Motion ....................................................276
7.2.4 Dynamic Measurements: Angular Velocity and Acceleration ..............277
7.3 Pressure- and Force-Distribution Measurements ................................................279
7.3.1 Early Pressure Devices ................................................................................279
7.3.2 Force-Sensing Electronic Components .....................................................281
7.3.3 Integrated-Touch Glove System .................................................................285
7.4 Nerve-Conduction Measurements .........................................................................287
7.4.1 Basic Concepts ..............................................................................................287
7.4.2 Nerve Stimulation and Recording.............................................................288
7.4.3 Response Measures .....................................................................................290
7.4.4 Limitations ....................................................................................................293
7.5 Electromyography .....................................................................................................296
7.5.1 EMG Instrumentation .................................................................................296
7.5.2 EMG Analysis ...............................................................................................297
Questions ..............................................................................................................................303
Problems ................................................................................................................................303
References .............................................................................................................................303
8. Job and Worksite Analysis ................................................................................................311
8.1 The Need for Job Analysis .......................................................................................311
8.2 Reliability and Validity of Assessment Tools .......................................................311
8.2.1 Basic Concepts ..............................................................................................311
8.2.2 Reliability of Assessments ..........................................................................312
8.2.3 Reliability of Analysts .................................................................................315
8.2.4 Accuracy and Precision ...............................................................................318
8.2.5 Applications ..................................................................................................321
Contents ix
8.3 Initial Identification of Musculoskeletal Injury Problems ..................................323
8.3.1 Initial Steps ...................................................................................................323
8.3.2 Surveys and Subjective Ratings .................................................................324
8.3.2.1 Symptom Surveys ........................................................................325
8.3.2.2 Body Discomfort Maps ................................................................326
8.3.2.3 Subjective Ratings ........................................................................326
8.3.2.4 Nordic Questionnaire ..................................................................327
8.3.3 Limitations of Surveys ................................................................................327
8.4 Gross Posture and Task Analyses ...........................................................................328
8.4.1 Early Recording of Postures .......................................................................328
8.4.2 Owaco Working Posture Analysis System ...............................................329
8.4.3 Posture Targeting .........................................................................................329
8.4.4 Rapid Upper Limb Assessment .................................................................329
8.4.5 Video Posture Analyses ..............................................................................331
8.4.6 Task Analyses ...............................................................................................334
8.5 Quantitative Upper Limb WRMSD Risk-Assessment Tools ...............................336
8.5.1 Checklists ......................................................................................................336
8.5.2 Strain Index ...................................................................................................336
8.5.3 OCRA ............................................................................................................340
8.5.4 Recent Developments ..................................................................................344
8.6 Data-Driven Upper Limb WRMSD Risk Index ....................................................345
Questions ..............................................................................................................................351
Problems ................................................................................................................................351
References .............................................................................................................................354
9. Hand Tools ...........................................................................................................................361
9.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................361
9.1.1 Historical Development of Tools ...............................................................361
9.1.2 Tools and Musculoskeletal Injuries ...........................................................361
9.1.3 General Tool Principles ...............................................................................362
9.2 General Biomechanical Considerations of Tools ..................................................362
9.2.1 Anatomy and Types of Grip .......................................................................362
9.2.2 The Biomechanics of a Power Grip ...........................................................364
9.2.3 The Biomechanics of a Precision Grip ......................................................366
9.2.4 Measurement of Skin Coefficient of Friction ...........................................368
9.2.5 Grip Force Coordination .............................................................................369
9.2.6 Static Muscle Loading .................................................................................372
9.2.7 Awkward Wrist Position .............................................................................373
9.2.8 Tissue Compression .....................................................................................374
9.2.9 Repetitive Finger Action .............................................................................374
9.3 Handles for Single-Handled Tools .........................................................................374
9.3.1 Handle Length .............................................................................................374
9.3.2 Handle Diameter .........................................................................................375
9.3.3 Handle Shape ...............................................................................................376
9.3.4 Texture and Materials .................................................................................377
9.3.5 Angulation of Handle .................................................................................377