Biology of Marine Birds (Marine Biology)

741 Pages·2001·14.58 MB·English

by  E. A. Schreiber

Biology
of
Marine
Birds
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COVER PHOTOGRAPHS
Front Cover
(clockwise from top right)
Red-tailed Tropicbird (R.W. Schreiber)
Great Frigatebird (R.W. Schreiber)
Laysan Albatross — Adult protecting young chick (R.W. and E.A. Schreiber)
Back Cover
(top to bottom)
Shy albatrosses (H. Weimerskirch)
White tern with fish in its bill (E.A. Schreiber)
Masked Booby adult with chick (R.W. and E.A. Schreiber)
Jackass Penguin pair with young (R.W. and E.A. Schreiber)
Biology
of
M ar ine
Birds
Edited by
E. A. Schreiber
Joanna Burger
CRC
Marine Biology
SERIES
Peter L. Lutz, Editor
CRC PR ESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
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Senior Editor: John Sulzycki
Project Editor: Naomi Lynch
Marketing Manager: Carolyn Spence
Cover Designer: Shayna Murry
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Biology of marine birds / edited by Elizabeth A. Schreiber and Joanna Burger.
p. cm. — (CRC marine biology)
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 0-8493-9882-7 (alk. paper)
1. Sea birds. I. Schreiber, Elizabeth Anne. II. Burger, Joanna. III. Series.
QL673 .B53 2001
598.177—dc21 2001025898
CIP
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Library of Congress Card Number 2001025898
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
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Dedication
for
Ralph W. Schreiber, Gary A. Schenk, and Michael Gochfeld
For a lifetime of challenges, collaboration, stimulating discussions, and
companionable fieldwork with the seabirds we love.
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Preface
The field of seabird ornithology has developed dramatically in recent years, partially owing to the
application of new technology to this diverse group of birds. For instance, the advent of satellite
tracking studies has helped us learn about an aspect of seabirds that was unknown previously —
their lives at sea. Because of this we now have a much better knowledge of the energy budgets of
adults and what energetic constraints they experience. Another factor that has limited our ability
to understand the lives of marine birds is their long life span. Without information spanning at least
one generation of individuals, there are many facets of the life history of seabirds that are difficult
to impossible to interpret. But, for seabirds, a generation can be 20 to 30 years, longer than most
ornithological studies on any species. Over the past 20 to 30 years, however, some excellent long-
term studies have been carried out. Our aim with the present work is to provide an examination
and summary of the research on seabirds, and also to provide a guide to the relevant literature for
those desiring further information.
This book discusses and summarizes our current knowledge of the biology of marine birds
today. It provides information on the biology, ecology, physiology, evolution, behavior, environ-
mental threats, and conservation of marine birds. It also provides information on key questions for
researchers to address, and for public policy makers involved in management of coastal lands and
marine reserves. We felt that marine birds needed to be examined from a wider perspective: not
only that of the biologist, but also that of those who are concerned about conservation, management,
and public policy. We provide the basis for understanding the biology of marine birds, as well as
their role in and relationship to coastal and oceanic ecosystems.
We explore all facets of the lives of the four main orders of seabirds, examining their fossil
history, taxonomy, distribution, life histories, population dynamics, foraging behavior, nesting
ecology, physiology, energetics, the effects of pollution and other human activities on the birds,
and needs for conservation. Each chapter presents the basics of our current knowledge about that
topic and many chapters also include a guide to yet unanswered questions and suggestions of
potential research paths.
Once into the project we realized that an entire book could be written about each topic we had
selected as a chapter. However, we were required to limit the length of each chapter, and to include
only the most important information and examples. The literature section for each chapter is
extensive and provides an overview of the subject for researchers, conservationists, managers, and
policy-makers.
We also faced the difficulty of defining marine birds (or seabirds; see Chapter 1). While some
orders contain birds that almost entirely live in coastal and marine environments, others do not.
Moreover, some birds not usually considered “marine” spend a great deal of their time in coastal
environments (herons, egrets, some shorebirds), and we have included separate chapters on these
groups, highlighting their marine lives.
We have included three chapters on conservation issues: Chapter 15 (Effects of Chemicals and
Pollution on Seabirds), Chapter 16 (Interactions between Fisheries and Seabirds), and Chapter 17
(Seabird Conservation). As man’s influence reaches the most remote parts of the world, our effect
on seabirds’ lives is increasing. Every aspect of seabird biology and ecology is affected. Many
seabird colonies have been extirpated already and others are disappearing as human development
and disturbance expand. Researchers have estimated that seabird populations today are 10% or less
of what they were a thousand years ago before humans reached many islands (Steadman et al.
1984, Pregill et al. 1994). As the human population expands, invading seabird nesting habitats, we
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are going to see the extinction of many species unless we can learn to value this resource, learn to
coexist, and have the science to effect conservation measures.
While the fossil origins of marine birds are not certain, we do know that they enjoy a worldwide
distribution today, from the poles to the tropics, and from urban coasts to remote oceanic islands.
And there are ornithologists studying them in all these habitats: some of us wear multiple layers
and try to take measurements with heavy gloves on while conducting Arctic field work, and others
wear shorts while enjoying the tropics. Our field studies often take us away from home for extended
periods and we continually try to outthink birds as we devise new ways to accomplish our research
goals. We frequently have to invent our own equipment — from capturing devices, to weighing
scales, to temperature probes, or to adapting new cutting edge technologies to fit our needs. Studying
seabirds can be a daily excursion or a seasonal expedition, and can involve hours driven by car or
days flown by air. All the authors of these chapters are active field researchers working on seabirds.
As you read you can try to imagine the thousands, or perhaps millions, of hours of field work the
knowledge in this book represents, and, for most seabird species, we have only begun. The field
is open, with many, many possibilities for new studies. As soon as we think we have found the
answer to a question, some bird does it differently, so we are forced to use words like most,
sometimes, maybe, often, generally — words you will see used often in this text. But that’s part
of what keeps the discovering fascinating.
In reviewing the chapters, we find that there is important research that needs to be conducted
on nearly every group of seabirds, in all aspects from basic breeding biology and communication
to contaminants. Effects of long-term phenomena such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation events and
global warming on seabird biology and their evolution are difficult to study, making our task that
much more challenging. The task for managers and policy-makers will be to translate the biology
detailed in this book into action to enhance breeding populations, protect nesting and foraging
seabirds, reduce adverse interactions between human activities and seabirds, and enhance the
opportunities for people to study and watch seabirds, thereby ensuring their continued survival.
We feel particularly privileged to have worked with such a superb group of our colleagues in
creating this book. They were all dedicated, responsive, a pleasure to work with, and, we believe,
have created an exceptional volume. We know that the quality of our work herein was significantly
increased by the dedicated reviewers, who, in spite of their busy schedules, took time to provide
thoughtful insight and feedback: Keith Bildstein, Claus Bech, Glen Fox, Mike Gochfeld, David
Goldstein, William Montevecchi, David Nettleship, Storrs Olson, Robert Ricklefs, Peter Stetten-
heim, Causey Whittow, and all those who must remain anonymous.
E.A. Schreiber
Joanna Burger
Chapter opening drawings by John P. Busby
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Acknowledgments
Between us, we have conducted over 60 years of research on marine birds. During this time, we
have had fruitful discussions with many people too numerous to acknowledge. However, several
people have profoundly influenced our thinking and our research, including C. Beer, J. Coulson,
J. Diamond, M. Erwin, G. Fox, R. W. Furness, J. Hickey, G. L. Hunt, J. Jehl, J. Kushlan, J. Mills,
B. Nelson, D. Nettleship, I. C. T. Nisbet, R. E. Ricklefs, J. Rodgers, C. Safina, J. Saliva, S. Senner,
J. Spendelow, N. Tinbergen, H. B. Tordoff, D. Warner, and G. E. Woolfenden.
There are no words to adequately thank the three people who have influenced our thinking,
challenged our ideas, and conducted field work with us on a variety of seabirds throughout our
careers: Michael Gochfeld, Gary Schenk, and Ralph Schreiber. They will continue to mold our
thinking for years to come. Gary Schenk and Michael Gochfeld spent long hours in fruitful
discussions about seabirds, organization of this book, assisting in preparation of Appendix 2, and
many other preparation details. They were drafted in a hundred ways, and this volume is a tribute
to their knowledge and love of seabirds, not to mention us. We thank our editor, John Sulzycki, at
CRC Press for shepherding the manuscript through the process, and for understanding that deadlines
are meant to encourage progress. We also thank the editor of the series, Peter Lutz, for seeing the
importance of highlighting marine birds in this marine series.
Over the years, we have received support from a number of organizations, and we thank them.
EAS thanks the American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, Defense
Nuclear Agency, Giles W. and Elise G. Mead Foundation, National Science Foundation (OCE-
8308756, OCE-8404152), the National Geographic Society, Los Angeles County Museum of
Natural History, and the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. JB thanks
the American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, National Institute of
Mental Health, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (ESO 5022, 5955), National
Science Foundation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Oceanographic and Atmo-
spheric Adminstration, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Consortium for Risk Evaluation with Stake-
holder Participation (CRESP) through the Department of Energy (AI #DE-FC01-95EW55084, DE-
FG 26-00NT 40938), the Endangered and Nongame Species Program of New Jersey Department
of Environmental Protection, and Institute for Coastal and Marine Sciences and the Environmental
and Occupational Health Sciences Institute of Rutgers University.