Biology of Desert Invertebrates

328 Pages·1981·10.068 MB·English

by  Clifford S. Crawford Ph.D. (auth.)

Clifford S. Crawford
Biology
of Desert Invertebrates
With 181 Illustrations
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York 1981
Clifford S. Crawford, Ph.D.
Professor, Department of Biology
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, U.S.A.
The figure on the front cover is a photograph of Coleoptera tracks on the Sonoran
desert sand dunes. [Courtesy of F. G. Andrews (Andrews et al., 1979)]
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Crawford, Clifford S.
Biology of desert invertebrates.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Desert fauna. 2. Invertebrates. I. Title.
QLlI6.C7 592.0909'54 81-9024
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-85796-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-85794-2
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-85794-2
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole
or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting,
reuse of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine
or similar means, and storage in data banks. Under § 54 of the German
Copyright Law, where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is
payable to "VerwertungsgeseUschaft Wort," Munich.
© by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1981
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1981
987654321
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free
for general use.
Contents
Part 1
Deserts and Desert Invertebrates
Introduction 1
Chapter 1
Perspectives 3
A. Evolution and Present Distribution of Deserts 3
I. Physical Causes of Deserts 3
1. The Role of Climate 3
2. Classification of Present Deserts Based on
Climate 4
a. Subtropical Deserts 4
b. Continental Interior Deserts 6
c. Rain Shadow Deserts 6
d. Cool Coastal Deserts 6
e. Polar Deserts 6
3. Desertification 7
a. Effects of Vegetation Removal 7
b. Effects of Withholding Fire 7
II. Continental Drift, Paleoclimates, and Desert
Evolution 8
1. Gondwanaland and Pangaea 8
2. Mesozoic Events and Aridity 9
vi Contents
3. Desert Formation in the Tertiary 9
4. Quaternary Environments and Modem
Deserts 9
B. Physical Environment of Deserts 10
I. Climate 10
1. Radiant Energy 10
2. Wind 11
3. Water 11
II. Surfaces and Soils: Their Properties and
Microclimates 12
C. Desert Ecosystems: Producers 14
I. Introduction 14
II. Role of Producers Relative to Arid-Climate
Patterns 14
1. Production in Desert Plants 14
2. Production Relative to Major Physical and
Climatic Factors 15
III. Role of Producers Relative to Invertebrate
Habitats and Feeding Patterns 15
1. Trees and Shrubs 15
2. Annuals 16
3. Cryptogams 16
D. Desert Ecosystems: Consumers 16
I. Introduction 16
II. Production, Life History, and Climate 17
III. Influence of Consumers on Primary
Production 17
Chapter 2
The Array of Desert Invertebrates 19
A. Protozoans 19
B. Nematodes 20
C. Annelids 20
D. Gastropod Mollusks 20
E. Isopods and Other Crustaceans 20
F. Solifugid Arachnids 21
G. Uropygid Arachnids 21
H. Pseudoscorpions 21
I. Scorpions 22
J. Opilionid Arachnids 22
K. Spiders 22
L. Mites 23
M. Millipedes 23
Contents vii
N. Centipedes 23
O. Entognath Hexapods and Apteryg0te Insects 24
P. Cockroaches and Lesser Orthopteroid Insects 24
Q. Locusts and Grasshoppers 25
R. Termites 25
S. Hemipteroid Insects 25
T. Neuropterans 26
U. Beetles 26
V. Butterflies and Moths 26
W. Flies 27
x. Bees and Wasps 27
Y. Ants 28
Z. Fleas 28
Summary Comments: Part 1 28
Part 2
Adaptations to Xeric Environments
Introduction 31
Chapter 3
The Use of Light and Timing of Activity 33
A. Introduction 33
I. Photoperiod 34
II. Light Intensity and Wavelength 34
B. Simple Light Responses and Diel Periodicities of
Desert Invertebrates 35
I. Mollusks 35
II. Isopods 35
III. Arachnids 35
IV. Myriapods 38
V. Insects 39
VI. Assessment of Diel Periodicities 46
C. Seasonal Periodicities of Desert Invertebrates 47
Chapter 4
Water Relations: Short-Term Water Balance 52
A. Introduction 52
B. Water Loss 53
C. Water Uptake 57
D. Patterns of Desiccation Resistance 59
viii Contents
Chapter 5
Seasonal Water Relations: Long-Term Water Balance 64
A. Introduction 64
B. Soil-Associated Invertebrates 65
C. Desert Locusts 69
D. Summary Comments 70
Chapter 6
Temperature Relations 71
A. Introduction 71
B. Thermal Budgets Describing Thermal Balance 71
C. Morphological Adaptations 73
I. Dead Air Spaces 73
II. Limb Length 74
III. Color 74
IV. Integumental Properties Other than Color 76
D. Behavioral and Physiological Adaptations 77
I. Behavioral Thermoregulation 77
1. Evaporative Cooling by Behavioral
Means 77
2. Microhabitat Selection 78
II. Physiological Aspects of Thermal Relations 82
1. Acclimation to High Temperatures 82
2. Metabolic Homeostasis in Changing Thermal
Environments 85
3. Flying Insects: A Special Case 86
E. Adaptations to Cold 87
I. General Responses to Freezing
Temperatures 87
II. Comparative Responses to Freezing Tempera
tures in Desert Invertebrates 88
III. Other Metabolic Responses to Cold 89
F. Summary Comments 90
Chapter 7
Energetics 91
A. Introduction 91
B. Assimilation 92
Contents ix
C. Respiration 96
D. Production 100
Summary Comments: Part 2 101
Part 3
Life-History Patterns
Introduction 103
Chapter 8
Short Lives: Multivoltine Species 105
A. Introduction 105
B. Reproductive Patterns 106
C. Patterns of Development and Resource
Utilization 107
Chapter 9
Short Lives: Univoltine Species 110
A. Introduction 110
B. Reproductive Patterns 110
C. Developmental Patterns 112
D. Patterns of Resource Utilization 115
Chapter 10
Long Lives: Herbivores and Detritivores 121
A. Introduction 121
B. Reproductive Patterns 121
C. Developmental Patterns 124
I. Slow Growth and Its Consequences 124
II. Interactions with Predators 127
D. Detritus as a Resource 131
Chapter 11
Long Lives: Carnivores 134
A. Introduction 134
B. Reproductive Patterns 135
x Contents
C. Developmental Patterns 136
D. Patterns of Resource Utilization 138
Summary Comments: Part 3 144
Part 4
Invertebrate Communities: Composition and Dynamics
Introduction: Use of the Community Concept 145
Chapter 12
Soil and Litter Community: Nematodes and Microarthropods 147
A. Introduction 147
B. Distribution 147
C. Community Roles 153
I. Trophic Relationships 153
II. Energetics 154
Chapter 13
Soil and Litter Community: Social Arthropods 156
A. Sociality in Desert Species: General Comments 156
B. Ants 160
I. Patterns of Distribution 160
II. Community Roles 162
C. Termites 165
I. Patterns of Distribution 165
II. Community Roles 166
Chapter 14
Soil and Litter Community: Temporary Dwellers 170
A. Comments on the Fauna 170
B. Habitats and Their Temporary Residents 171
I. Soil (Including Burrows) 171
1. Distribution of Invertebrate Species 171
2. Morphological and Behavioral Adaptations
of Soil-Associated Desert Arthropods 174
3. Adaptations of Soil-Associated Carnivorous
Arthropods in Deserts 181
Contents xi
II. Crevice-Type Habitats 181
III. Soil Surface Including Litter 192
C. Summary Comments 202
Chapter 15
Temporary Vegetation Community: Emphasis on Herbivores 203
A. Introductory Comments 203
B. Consumer Array and Dietary Patterns 204
I. Direct Consumers 205
II. Pollinators 201
III. Carnivores 201
C. Characteristics of Plants as Resources for Inverte
brate Consumers 201
I. Plant Phenology 201
II. Aspects of Photosynthesis 210
D. Characteristics of Invertebrate Consumers 211
I. Seasonal and Diel Feeding Patterns 211
II. Patterns of Pollination 211
III. Patterns of Behavior and Development 213
E. Coevolution of Temporary Desert Vegetation and Its
Herbivores 214
Chapter 16
Perennial Shrub Community 218
A. Introductory Comments 218
B. Consumer Array and Dietary Patterns 218
C. Characteristics of Plants as Resources for Inverte
brate Consumers 219
I. Plant Phenology 219
II. Aspects of Photosynthesis 223
D. Characteristics of Invertebrate Consumers 226
I. Seasonal and Diel Feeding Patterns 226
II. Patterns of Behavior and Development 221
E. Coevolution of Perennial Desert Shrubs and Their
Herbivores 231
Chapter 11
The Invertebrate Community of Ephemeral Waters 234
A. The Habitat 234
B. The Invertebrate Fauna 231