Biology: concepts and applications

859 Pages·69.065 MB·English

by  Starr, Cecie;Evers, Christine A;Starr, Lisa

B i o l o g y
Concepts and Applications 8e
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
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B i o l o g y
Concepts and Applications 8e
Cecie Starr
Christine A. Evers
Lisa Starr
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
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Biology: Concepts and Applications, © 2011, 2008 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Eighth Edition
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Cecie Starr, Christine A. Evers, Lisa Starr
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CONTENTS IN BRIEF
introduction unit v how plants work
1 Invitation to Biology 25 Plant Tissues
26 Plant Nutrition and Transport
unit i principles of cellular life
27 Plant Reproduction and Development
2 Life’s Chemical Basis
unit vi how animals work
3 Molecules of Life
4 Cell Structure 28 Animal Tissues and Organ Systems
5 Ground Rules of Metabolism 29 Neural Control
6 Where It Starts—Photosynthesis 30 Sensory Perception
7 How Cells Release Chemical Energy 31 Endocrine Control
32 Structural Support and Movement
unit ii genetics
33 Circulation
8 DNA Structure and Function 34 Immunity
9 From DNA to Protein 35 Respiration
10 Controls Over Genes 36 Digestion and Human Nutrition
11 How Cells Reproduce 37 The Internal Environment
12 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 38 Reproduction and Development
13 Observing Patterns in Inherited Traits
unit vii principles of ecology
14 Human Inheritance
15 Biotechnology 39 Animal Behavior
40 Population Ecology
unit iii principles of evolution
41 Community Ecology
16 Evidence of Evolution 42 Ecosystems
17 Processes of Evolution 43 The Biosphere
18 Life’s Origin and Early Evolution 44 Human Effects on the Biosphere
unit iv evolution and biodiversity
19 Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaeans
20 The Protists
21 Plant Evolution
22 Fungi
23 Animals I: Major Invertebrate Groups
24 Animals II: The Chordates
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DETAILED CONTENTS
Swapping Electrons 27
INTRODUCTION
Sharing Electrons 27
2.4 Why Atoms Interact 28
1 Invitation to Biology Ionic Bonds 28
Covalent Bonds 28
1.1 The Secret Life of Earth 3
Hydrogen Bonds 29
1.2 The Science of Nature 4 2.5 Water’s Life-Giving Properties 30
Life Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts 4
Each Water Molecule Is Polar 30
A Pattern in Life’s Organization 4
Water Is an Excellent Solvent 30
1.3 How Living Things Are Alike 6 Cohesion 31
Organisms Require Energy and Nutrients 6 Water Stabilizes Temperature 31
Organisms Sense and Respond to Change 7 2.6 Acids and Bases 32
Organisms Use DNA 7
Mercury Rising (revisited) 33
1.4 How Living Things Differ 8
1.5 Organizing Information About Species 10 3 Molecules of Life
A Rose by Any Other Name . . . 10
1.6 The Nature of Science 12 3.1 Fear of Frying 37
Thinking About Thinking 12 3.2 The Molecules of Life—From Structure
to Function 38
How Science Works 12
Functional Groups 38
1.7 Examples of Biology Experiments 14
What Cells Do to Organic Compounds 39
Potato Chips and Stomachaches 14
3.3 Carbohydrates 40
Butterflies and Birds 14
Simple Sugars 40
1.8 Asking Useful Questions 16
Short-Chain Carbohydrates 40
The Trouble With Trends 16
Complex Carbohydrates 40
Problems With Probability 16
3.4 Lipids 42
Bothering With Bias 17
Fats 42
1.9 Philosophy of Science 18
Phospholipids 43
About the Word “Theory” 18
Waxes 43
The Limits of Science 18
Steroids 43
The Secret Life of Earth (revisited) 19
3.5 Proteins—Diversity in Structure and Function 44
Amino Acids 44
Building Proteins 44
UNIT I PRINCIPLES OF CELLULAR LIFE Protein Structure 44
3.6 The Importance of Protein Structure 46
2 Life’s Chemical Basis 3.7 Nucleic Acids 47
Fear of Frying (revisited) 47
2.1 Mercury Rising 23
2.2 Start With Atoms 24 4 Cell Structure
Isotopes and Radioisotopes 25
2.3 Why Electrons Matter 26 4.1 Food for Thought 51
Energy Levels 26 4.2 What, Exactly, Is a Cell? 52
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Traits Common to All Cells 52 Effects of Temperature, pH, and Salinity 81
Constraints on Cell Size 52 Help From Cofactors 81
Cell Theory 53 5.5 Metabolism: Organized, Enzyme-Mediated Reactions 82
4.3 Spying on Cells 54 Types of Metabolic Pathways 82
4.4 Membrane Structure and Function 56 Controls Over Metabolism 82
Membrane Proteins 56 Redox Reactions 83
Variations on the Model 57 5.6 Movement of Ions and Molecules 84
4.5 Introducing Bacteria and Archaeans 58 Diffusion Across Membranes 84
Biofilms 59 Turgor 85
4.6 Introducing Eukaryotic Cells 60 5.7 Membrane-Crossing Mechanisms 86
Passive Transport 86
4.7 The Nucleus 61
Active Transport 86
4.8 The Endomembrane System 62
5.8 Membrane Trafficking 88
Endoplasmic Reticulum 62
A Variety of Vesicles 62 A Toast to Alcohol Dehydrogenase (revisited) 89
Golgi Bodies 63
4.9 Mitochondria and Plastids 64 6 Where It Starts—Photosynthesis
Mitochondria 64
6.1 Green Energy 93
Chloroplasts and Other Plastids 65
6.2 Sunlight as an Energy Source 94
4.10 The Dynamic Cytoskeleton 66
Properties of Light 94
4.11 Cell Surface Specializations 68
Pigments: The Rainbow Catchers 94
Matrixes Between and Around Cells 68
6.3 Exploring the Rainbow 96
Cell Junctions 69
6.4 Overview of Photosynthesis 97
4.12 A Visual Summary of Eukaryotic Cell Components 70
6.5 Light-Dependent Reactions 98
4.13 The Nature of Life 71
Capturing Light for Photosynthesis 98
Food for Thought (revisited) 71
The Noncyclic Pathway 98
Replacing Lost Electrons 98
5 Ground Rules of Metabolism Harvesting Electron Energy 98
The Cyclic Pathway 99
5.1 A Toast to Alcohol Dehydrogenase 75
6.6 Energy Flow in Photosynthesis 100
5.2 Energy and the World of Life 76
6.7 Light-Independent Reactions: The Sugar Factory 101
Energy Disperses 76
Energy’s One-Way Flow 76 6.8 Adaptations: Carbon-Fixing Pathways 102
5.3 Energy in the Molecules of Life 78 Green Energy (revisited) 103
Energy In, Energy Out 78
Why Earth Does Not Go Up in Flames 78 7 How Cells Release Chemical Energy
ATP—The Cell’s Energy Currency 79
7.1 When Mitochondria Spin Their Wheels 107
5.4 How Enzymes Work 80
Helping Substrates Get Together 80 7.2 Extracting Energy From Carbohydrates 108
Orienting Substrates in Positions That Favor Reaction 80 Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere 108
Inducing a Fit Between Enzyme and Substrate 80 Carbohydrate Breakdown Pathways 108
Shutting Out Water Molecules 81 7.3 Glycolysis—Glucose Breakdown Starts 110
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7.4 Second Stage of Aerobic Respiration 112 9.6 Mutated Genes and Their Protein Products 146
The Krebs Cycle 112 What Causes Mutations? 147
7.5 Aerobic Respiration’s Big Energy Payoff 114 Ricin and Your Ribosomes (revisited) 148
Electron Transfer Phosphorylation 114
Summing Up: The Energy Harvest 115 10 Controls Over Genes
7.6 Fermentation Pathways 116
10.1 Between You and Eternity 151
Alcoholic Fermentation 116
10.2 Gene Expression in Eukaryotic Cells 152
Lactate Fermentation 116
Control of Transcription 152
7.7 Alternative Energy Sources in the Body 118
mRNA Processing 153
Energy From Fats 119
mRNA Transport 153
Energy From Proteins 119
Translational Control 153
When Mitochondria Spin Their Wheels (revisited) 119 Post- Translational Modification 153
10.3 There’s a Fly in My Research 154
Homeotic Genes 154
UNIT II GENETICS Filling in Details of Body Plans 155
10.4 A Few Outcomes of Gene Controls 156
X Chromosome Inactivation 156
8 DNA Structure and Function
Male Sex Determination in Humans 156
8.1 A Hero Dog’s Golden Clones 123 Flower Formation 157
8.2 Eukaryotic Chromosomes 124 10.5 Gene Control in Bacteria 158
The Lactose Operon 158
Chromosome Number 124
Lactose Intolerance 159
Types of Chromosomes 125
Between You and Eternity (revisited) 159
8.3 The Discovery of DNA’s Function 126
Early and Puzzling Clues 126
Confirmation of DNA’s Function 127 11 How Cells Reproduce
8.4 The Discovery of DNA’s Structure 128 11.1 Henrietta’s Immortal Cells 163
DNA’s Building Blocks 128
11.2 Multiplication by Division 164
DNA’s Base Pair Sequence 129
The Life of a Cell 164
8.5 Fame and Glory 130 A Bigger Picture of Cell Division 165
8.6 DNA Replication and Repair 130 11.3 Mitosis 166
Proofreading 131 11.4 Cytokinesis: Division of Cytoplasm 168
8.7 Using DNA To Duplicate Existing Mammals 132 11.5 Controls Over Cell Division 169
A Hero Dog’s Golden Clones (revisited) 133 11.6 Cancer: When Control Is Lost 170
Henrietta’s Immortal Cells (revisited) 171
9 From DNA to Protein
9.1 Ricin and Your Ribosomes 137 12 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
9.2 The Nature of Genetic Information 138 12.1 Why Sex? 175
Converting a Gene to an RNA 138
12.2 Meiosis Halves the Chromosome Number 176
Converting mRNA to Protein 138
Introducing Alleles 176
9.3 Transcription 140 What Meiosis Does 176
Post-Transcriptional Modifications 141 12.3 The Process of Meiosis 178
9.4 RNA and the Genetic Code 142 Meiosis I 178
rRNA and tRNA —The Translators 143 Meiosis II 179
9.5 Translating the Code: RNA to Protein 144 12.4 How Meiosis Introduces Variations in Traits 180
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Crossing Over in Prophase I 180 Duplication 210
Segregation of Chromosomes Into Gametes 180 Deletion 210
12.5 From Gametes to Offspring 182 Inversion 210
Gamete Formation in Plants 182 Translocation 210
Gamete Formation in Animals 182 Chromosome Changes in Evolution 210
Fertilization 182
14.6 Heritable Changes in the Chromosome Number 212
12.6 Mitosis and Meiosis—An Ancestral Connection? 184
Autosomal Change and Down Syndrome 212
Why Sex? (revisited) 185 Change in the Sex Chromosome Number 212
Female Sex Chromosome Abnormalities 212
13 Observing Patterns in Inherited Traits Male Sex Chromosome Abnormalities 213
13.1 Menacing Mucus 189 14.7 Genetic Screening 214
Prenatal Diagnosis 214
13.2 Mendel, Pea Plants, and Inheritance Patterns 190
Preimplantation Diagnosis 215
Mendel’s Experimental Approach 190
Inheritance in Modern Terms 191 Shades of Skin (revisited) 215
13.3 Mendel’s Law of Segregation 192
13.4 Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment 194 15 Biotechnology
The Contribution of Crossovers 195
15.1 Personal DNA Testing 219
13.5 Beyond Simple Dominance 196
15.2 Cloning DNA 220
Codominance 196
Incomplete Dominance 196 cDNA Cloning 221
Epistasis 197 15.3 From Haystacks to Needles 222
Pleiotropy 197 Isolating Genes 222
13.6 Complex Variation in Traits 198 PCR 222
Continuous Variation 198 15.4 DNA Sequencing 224
Environmental Effects on Phenotype 198
The Human Genome Project 225
Menacing Mucus (revisited) 199
15.5 Genomics 226
DNA Profiling 226
14 Human Inheritance
15.6 Genetic Engineering 228
14.1 Shades of Skin 203 15.7 Designer Plants 228
14.2 Human Genetic Analysis 204
15.8 Biotech Barnyards 230
Types of Genetic Variation 204
Knockouts and Organ Factories 230
14.3 Autosomal Inheritance Patterns 206
15.9 Safety Issues 231
The Autosomal Dominant Pattern 206
The Autosomal Recessive Pattern 207 15.10 Genetically Modified Humans 232
Getting Better 232
14.4 X-Linked Inheritance Patterns 208
Red–Green Color Blindness 208 Getting Worse 232
Hemophilia A 209 Getting Perfect 232
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy 209 Getting There 233
14.5 Heritable Changes in Chromosome Structure 210 Personal DNA Testing (revisited) 233
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