Biology and Management of White-tailed Deer in Alabama

185 Pages·2003·1.75 MB·English

Biology and Management of
White-tailed Deer in Alabama
Chris Cook and Bill Gray
Wildlife Biologists
Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries

Biology and Management
of White-tailed Deer
in Alabama
by
Chris Cook and Bill Gray
Wildlife Biologists
Alabama Department of Conservation and
Natural Resources
Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries
M. Barnett Lawley M. N. “Corky” Pugh
Commissioner Director
Fred R. Harders Gary H. Moody
Assistant Director Chief, Wildlife Section
September 2003
Support for development of this publication was provided by the
Wildlife Restoration Program and the Alabama Division of Wildlife
and Freshwater Fisheries with funds provided by your purchase of
hunting licenses and equipment.
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Table of Contents
PREFACE.............................................................................................1
TAXONOMY .........................................................................................3
BASIC DEER BIOLOGY....................................................................4
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS........................................................... 4
SIZE AND PELAGE OF DEER ..............................................................................4
SENSES OF DEER....................................................................................................5
ANTLER DEVELOPMENT.....................................................................................8
DEER BEHAVIOR...................................................................................11
VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION......................................................11
DEER MOVEMENT PATTERNS...........................................................13
HOME RANGE SIZE..............................................................................................14
DISPERSAL.............................................................................................................14
BREEDING PERIOD OR RUT...............................................................16
GESTATION AND FAWNING PERIOD................................................18
DISEASE, PARASITES, AND PREDATION ................................19
DISEASES AND PARASITES................................................................19
PREDATION ............................................................................................22
FEEDING HABITS AND NUTRITION..........................................23
FOOD SELECTION AND FEEDING HABITS.....................................23
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS.......................................................26
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS ..........................................................29
DEER HABITAT IN ALABAMA.............................................................29
FOOD – SEASONAL FORAGING HABITATS .....................................31
SPRING.....................................................................................................................31
SUMMER..................................................................................................................32
FALL..........................................................................................................................33
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WINTER....................................................................................................................34
COVER......................................................................................................35
SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF HABITAT COMPONENTS..............37
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDGE..............................................................37
IMPACT OF SOIL FERTILITY ON HABITAT QUALITY ..............38
CARRYING CAPACITY OF DEER HABITAT......................................40
FACTORS INFLUENCING CARRYING CAPACITY ..........................43
POPULATION BIOLOGY................................................................44
POPULATION STRUCTURE................................................................44
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND HIERARCHY....................................45
POPULATION DENSITY .......................................................................47
EFFECTS OF ADULT SEX RATIO AND BUCK AGE
STRUCTURE.....................................................................................49
ADULT SEX RATIO................................................................................................49
BUCK AGE STRUCTURE.....................................................................................51
REPRODUCTION STUDIES IN ALABAMA ........................................54
HERD MANAGEMENT ....................................................................57
POPULATION GROWTH POTENTIAL................................................57
THE NECESSITY OF HERD MANAGEMENT.....................................59
THE BASICS OF HERD MANAGEMENT.............................................61
HERD MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES AND OPTIONS..................65
TRADITIONAL DEER MANAGEMENT............................................................66
QUALITY DEER MANAGEMENT.......................................................................69
TROPHY DEER MANAGEMENT........................................................................74
GENETICS AND ANTLER DEVELOPMENT ..............................78
DEVELOPING A DEER MANAGEMENT PLAN.........................84
DATA COLLECTION........................................................................89
HARVEST DATA......................................................................................89
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JAWBONE EXTRACTION ....................................................................................91
WEIGHTS..................................................................................................................96
ANTLER MEASUREMENTS................................................................................96
LACTATION.............................................................................................................99
OBSERVATIONAL DATA.......................................................................99
ALABAMA’S DEER MANAGEMENT ASSISTANCE
PROGRAM................................................................................ 102
HABITAT MANAGEMENT........................................................... 103
LIMITATIONS ON DEER HABITAT..................................................103
HABITAT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES........................................106
PRESCRIBED FIRE.............................................................................................106
HERBICIDE TREATMENT................................................................................109
MOWING/DISCING..............................................................................................110
TIMBER HARVEST..............................................................................................111
FERTILIZATION..................................................................................................112
WILDLIFE OPENINGS .......................................................................................115
Location and Size..............................................................................................................115
Soil Testing.........................................................................................................................118
Lime and Fertilizer............................................................................................................120
Applying the Seed..............................................................................................................123
What to Plant.....................................................................................................................123
Exclosures..........................................................................................................................128
SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING.............................................................................129
MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS ...............................................................................131
SUMMARY..............................................................................................................133
LITERATURE CITED ................................................................... 134
APPENDICES................................................................................. 141
Appendix 1: AVERAGE BODY WEIGHT, ANTLER SIZE, AND
LACTATION RATES OF DEER IN THE DIFFERENT SOIL
REGIONS OF ALABAMA...............................................................142
Appendix 2: DEER HARVEST AND HUNTER NUMBERS IN
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ALABAMA FROM 1986-87 THROUGH 2001-02...........................144
Appendix 3: AGING DEER USING TOOTH REPLACEMENT AND
WEAR ...............................................................................................145
Appendix 4: SELECTIVE ANTLERLESS DEER HARVEST...........149
Appendix 5: GUIDELINES FOR AGING LIVE MALE WHITE-
TAILED DEER IN ALABAMA.......................................................151
Appendix 6: DEER HARVEST DATA FORM ....................................154
Appendix 7: FIELD OBSERVATION FORM.....................................155
Appendix 8: TEMPLATE FOR JAWBONE PULLER .......................156
Appendix 9: COOL-SEASON PLANTING GUIDE............................157
Appendix 10: WARM-SEASON PLANTING GUIDE.........................165
Appendix 11: CONTACT INFORMATION FOR DIVISION OF
WILDLIFE AND FRESHWATER FISHERIES, WILDLIFE
SECTION OFFICES.......................................................................171
Appendix 12: SUGGESTED READING AND ADDITIONAL
RESOURCES...................................................................................173
ABOUT THE AUTHORS............................................................... 175
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the extensive and construc-
tive reviews of the manuscript for this book which were provided by:
Dr. M. Keith Causey, Professor Emeritus, Auburn University School of
Forestry and Wildlife Science; Gary H. Moody, Wildlife Biologist/Chief,
Wildlife Section, Alabama Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisher-
ies; Keith Guyse, Wildlife Biologist/Assistant Chief, Alabama Division
of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries; Jerry DeBin, Chief, Information
and Education Section, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natu-
ral Resources; Kim Nix, Managing Editor, Information and Education
Section, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources;
Gaylon Gwin, Senior Staff Writer, Information and Education Section,
Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.
Additional suggestions regarding the manuscript were provided
by: M.N. “Corky” Pugh, Director, Alabama Division of Wildlife and
Freshwater Fisheries and Kenneth G. Johnson, Supervising Wildlife
Biologist, Alabama Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries.
Special thanks go to Muleshoe Plantation, LLC, Port Royal
Farm, and Westervelt Lodge for providing the opportunity to photo-
graph deer and deer habitat features. We are appreciative of the
assistance offered by Brian Murphy and QDMA in preparing Appendix
12: Suggested Reading and Additional Resources.
Photo Credits: The top left cover photo provided by Jeff Shaw,
Visual Productions; top right cover photo provided by Kevin McKinstry,
Westervelt Wildlife Services; photos used in Appendix 4: Selective
Anterless Deer Harvest provided by Bill Lea, Joe Hamilton, George
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Barnett, and Wyman Meinzer and reprinted with permission from
QDMA; other photos and drawings acknowledged throughout the book
were provided by: Jamie Banks, Yellowbluff Hunting Club; Rick
Claybrook, Alabama Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries;
Bruce Cook, Arkansas Game and Fish Commission; Dave Edwards,
Westervelt Wildlife Services; Joe Hamilton, The Nature Conservancy;
Dr. Harry Jacobson, Professor Emeritus, Mississippi State University,
Department of Wildlife and Fisheries; Rhett Johnson, Solon Dixon Edu-
cation Center, Auburn University School of Forestry and Wildlife
Science; Jeff Shaw, Visual Productions; the Southeastern Cooperative
Wildlife Disease Study; Stan Stewart, Alabama Division of Wildlife and
Freshwater Fisheries; Bobby Watkins, BASF Corporation; and Jean
Watson, White Bluff Hunting Club. Photographs and drawings not ac-
knowledged were provided by the authors.
The Department of Conservation and Natural Resources does not discriminate
on the basis of race, color, religion, age, gender, national origin, or disability
in its hiring or employment practices nor in admission to, access to, or opera-
tions of its programs, services, or activities.
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