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biology EDITORIAL BOARD Editor in Chief Richard Robinson [email protected] Tucson, Arizona Advisory Editors Peter Bruns, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Rex Chisholm, Northwestern University Medical School Mark A. Davis, Department of Biology, Macalester College Thomas A. Frost, Trout Lake Station, University of Wisconsin Kenneth S. Saladin, Department of Biology, Georgia College and State University Editorial Reviewer Ricki Lewis, State University of New York at Albany Students from the following schools participated as consultants: Pocatello High School, Pocatello, Idaho Eric Rude, Teacher Swiftwater High School, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania Howard Piltz, Teacher Douglas Middle School, Box Elder, South Dakota Kelly Lane, Teacher Medford Area Middle School, Medford, Wisconsin Jeanine Staab, Teacher EDITORIAL AND PRODUCTION STAFF Linda Hubbard, Editorial Director Diane Sawinski, Christine Slovey, Senior Editors Shawn Beall, Bernard Grunow, Michelle Harper, Kate Millson, Carol Nagel, Contributing Editors Kristin May, Nicole Watkins, Editorial Interns Michelle DiMercurio, Senior Art Director Rhonda Williams, Buyer Robyn V. Young, Senior Image Editor Julie Juengling, Lori Hines, Permissions Assistants Deanna Raso, Photo Researcher Macmillan Reference USA Elly Dickason, Publisher Hélène G. Potter, Editor in Chief Ray Abruzzi, Editor ii biology 2 VOLUME E–H Richard Robinson, Editor in Chief Copyright © 2002 by Macmillan Reference USA All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo- copying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, with- out permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Reference USA Gale Group 300 Park Avenue South 27500 Drake Rd. New York, NY 10010 Farmington Hills, 48331-3535 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Library of Congress Catalog-in-Publication Data Biology / Richard Robinson, editor in chief. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-02-86551-6 (set: hardcover) — ISBN 0-02-86-5552-4 (vol. 1) — ISBN 0-02-865556-7 (vol. 2) — ISBN 0-02-865554-0 (vol. 3) — ISBN 0-02-865555-9 (vol. 4) 1. Biology. I. Robinson, Richard, 1956– QH07.2.B556 2001 570-dc21 2001040211 For Your Reference The following section provides information that is applicable to a num- ber of articles in this reference work. Included are a metric measurement and conversion table, geologic timescale, diagrams of an animal cell and a plant cell, illustration of the structure of DNA nucleotides, detail of DNA nucleotides pairing up across the double helix, and a comparison of the mol- ecular structure of DNA and RNA. METRIC MEASUREMENT Definitions Temperature Conversion ˚F ˚C Kilo = 1000 Hecto = 100 210 100 Deka = 10 200 Deci = 0.10 (1/10) 90 190 Centi = 0.01 (1/100) Milli = 0.001 (1/1000) 180 80 Micro = 0.000001 (1/1,000,000) 170 Nano = 0.000000001 (1/1,000,000,000) 160 70 150 140 60 Conversions 130 120 50 To convert Into Multiply by 110 40 Acres Hectares 0.4047 100 Centimeters Inches 0.3937 90 30 Feet Meters 0.3048 80 Gallons Liters 3.7853 Grams Ounces 0.0353 70 20 Grams Pounds 0.0022 60 Hectares Acres 2.4710 50 10 Inches Centimeters 2.5400 40 Kilograms Pounds 2.2046 30 0 Kilometers Miles 0.6214 Liters Gallons] 0.2642 20 (cid:2)10 Meters Feet 3.2808 10 MOuilnecse s KGirlaommse ters 218..63049935 (cid:2)100 (cid:2)20 Pounds Kilograms 0.4536 Pounds Grams 453.59 ˚F ˚C 100˚C (cid:3) water boils 0˚C (cid:3) water freezes v GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE ERA PERIOD EPOCH STARTED (millions of years ago) Cenozoic: Quaternary Holocene 0.01 66.4 millions of years Pleistocene 1.6 ago–present time Neogene Pliocene 5.3 Miocene 23.7 y r a ti Paleogene Oligocene 36.6 r e T Eocene 57.8 Paleocene 66.4 Mesozoic: Cretaceous Late 97.5 245–66.4 millions of Early 144 years ago Jurassic Late 163 Middle 187 Early 208 Triassic Late 230 Middle 240 Early 245 Permian Late 258 Paleozoic: 570–245 millions of Early 286 years ago s u ero Pennsylvanian Late 320 nif o b ar Mississippian Early 360 C Devonian Late 374 Middle 387 Early 408 Silurian Late 421 Early 438 Ordovician Late 458 Middle 478 Early 505 Cambrian Late 523 Middle 540 Early 570 Precambrian time: 4500–570 millions of years ago 4500 vi A TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL Stalk Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Basal body Cilium Rootlet Golgi apparatus Peroxisome Ribosomes Mitochondrion Rough endoplasmic reticulum Centrioles Chromosome Vacuole Nucleus Nucleolus Nuclear membrane Plasma membrane Lysosome A TYPICAL PLANT CELL Endoplasmic reticulum Chloroplast Golgi apparatus Chromosome Nucleolus Nucleus Nuclear membrane Ribosomes Vacuole Cell wall Plasma membrane Mitochondrion Leucoplast vii STRUCTURE OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES Components of a nucleotide Nitrogenous base Phosphate Sugar Purine-containing nucleotides Pyrimidine-containing nucleotides Adenine NH Thymine O 2 C C N H C C N H C N 3 H C C C H H C C O N N N O– O– –O P O CH2 O –O P O CH2 O O H H O H H H H H H OH H OH H Guanine Cytosine O NH 2 C C N C N H H C N H C C C NH H C C O 2 N N N O– O– –O P O CH2 O –O P O CH2 O O H H O H H H H H H OH H OH H viii DNA NUCLEOTIDES PAIR UP ACROSS THE DOUBLE HELIX 5' end Thymine (T) Adenine (A) O O– CH3 H P H O H N N H 3' end –O O H 5' N CH2 O NN N H N 3' H N H H O H H H H H H O H Cytosine (C) H C 2 O O H H Guanine (G) O O– P H N H O N H P –O O O O 5' H 3' N CH2 O NN N H N H N H H O H N H H H H H H O H H C direction O P O H Adenine H(A) Thymine (T) 2 O P O– direction 5' to 3' –O O CH2 O N N N H O CH3 HH O O 5' to 3' N N H NN N H H H H H H H H O H H O 3' O O Guanine (G) 5' H C P H Cytosine (C) 2 O O– H –O O N H P N O H N H CH2 O H O O N N H NN N H H H H H H H N H O 3' H H H O 3' end 5' H C 2 O O– P –O O 5' end Sugar-phosphate Nitrogenous bases of the Sugar-phosphate backbone of two DNA strands connected backbone of one DNA strand by hydrogen bonds complementary DNA strand ix COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA HOCH O OH HOCH O OH 2 2 H H H H H H H H DNA OH H OH OH RNA Deoxyribose Ribose A T A C G C G C G T A U O O H C C H H C H 3 C N C N C C C C H N O H N O H H Thymine Uracil x