Biological Insect Pest Suppression

325 Pages·1977·8.929 MB·English

by  Dr. Harry C. Coppel, Dr. James W. Mertins (auth.)

Ad vanced Series in Agricultural Sciences 4
Co-ordinating Editor: B. Yaron, Bet-Dagan
Editors: G. W. Thomas, Lexington B. R. Sabey, Fort Collins
Y. Vaadia, Bet-Dagan L. D. Van Vleck, Ithaca
Harry C. Coppel· James W. Mertins
Biological
Insect Pest Suppression
With 46 Figures
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York 1977
Dr. HARRY C. CoPPEL, Professor of Entomology and Forestry
Dr. JAMES W. MERTINS, Research Assoc.
University of Wisconsin, Department of Entomology, 237 Russell Laboratories,
Madison, WI 53706, USA
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-66489-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-66487-8
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-66487-8
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data. Coppel. Harry Charles. 1918-. Biological insect
pest suppression. (Advanced series in agricultural sciences; 4) Bibliography: p. Includes index. I. Insect
control-Biological control. I. Mertins. James W., 1943-. joint author. II. Title. III. Series.
SB933.3.C66.632:7. 76-42188.
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© by Springer-Verlag Berlin· Heidelberg 1977
Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1977
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence
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and therefore free for general use.
To Our Parents
Preface
The subject area embraced by the term "biological control" in its
classical sense is very broad indeed. The term itself was apparently first
used in 1919 by the late Harry S. Smith, and was then used specifically
in reference to the suppression of insect populations by the actions of
their indigenous or introduced natural enemies. The California school
of biological control specialists who followed in Smith's footsteps have
traditionally differentiated "natural" biological control (by indigenous
natural enemies) and "applied" biological control (by man-introduced
natural enemies). Subsequently, the philosophy broadened beyond the
original narrow concern with population suppression of insects (and
especially pest insects), to embrace directed activities against mites or
other arthropod pests, various invertebrate and vertebrate pests, weeds,
and organisms producing disease in humans or their domestic animals
and plants. The techniques used in these activities also multiplied
beyond the original concern with natural enemies.
The subjects area discussed in this book is, at the same time, broader
and more restricted than that covered in other books on "biological
control." On the one hand, the treatment here is restrictive in that, with
rare exception, we have limited ourselves to dealing only with ideas and
examples involving the suppression of insect pests through human
activity or intervention in the environment. On the other hand, we
have tried to include discussions on all of the currently recognized
biologically-based methods of insect pest suppression, without
restricting ourselves to a simple consideration of the directed use of
parasitoids, predators, and pathogenic microorganisms. In light of
these philosophical differences, we have chosen to deemphasize and
restrict the use of the term "biological control." One particular
concern is with the currently nebulous and ambiguous use of the word
"control" in entomology and biology in general. Because of its multi
farious semantic inferences, which may only serve to confuse the reader,
we have chosen to replace the word "control" with "suppression." And,
since we are dealing here only with insect pests, we have used the
phrase "biological insect pest suppression" in place of "biological
control," except in those instances when we are speaking of biological
control in its classical entomological sense. So, the definition of the
term biological insect pest suppression, and the subject of this book,
is the use or encouragement, by man, of living organisms or their
products for the population reduction of pest insects.
VIII Preface
One other semantic problem perhaps deserves comment here before
proceeding; that is the relationship of natural control to biological
control. Although many authors would disagree, we prefer to think of
the two concepts as distinct (though related) entities, differing primarily
by the involvement of human activity in the latter case. Natural control is
really a process of population regulation deriving from the combined
effects of additive, conditioning, and subtractive processes in the
environment, and resulting in a relative stability in population
density over a period of time. A part of natural control is the
subtractive effect arising from the activities of indigenous living
mortality agents in the environment (e.g. parasitoids, predators,
pathogens). This is what has been termed "natural biological control,"
although it might be more appropriately called natural mortality from
biotic agents. Mortality and population suppression deriving from
biotic agents introduced to the environment through human interven
tion has sometimes been called "applied biological control," although
it is most commonly referred to simply as biological control. This
latter usage is so firmly entrenched in entomological literature that
substitution of the more accurate term, biological pest suppression, will
be difficult. As long as "biological control" is used in reference to
the classical human activity of introducing exotic biotic agents for pest
suppression, there should be little misunderstanding of its meaning.
Finally, we accept the fact that once released and established in nature,
an exotic beneficial agent is itself subjected to biotic and abiotic
processes which tend to increase or decrease its effectiveness. At some
point along the subsequent time line, we might conceivably begin to
consider the actions of the beneficial species and the resulting insect
pest population suppression as a natural control process equivalent to
any other in the environment.
Unlike many recent treatments of the subject of biological pest
suppression, this book is essentially a cohesive statement of fact and
opinion presented from the equivalent of a single author's viewpoint.
It is not the product of a committee, the proceedings of a symposium,
or an "edited" collection of papers contributed by a diverse group of
authors. As such, it probably displays all of the faults, and hopefully
many of the virtues that single authorship entails. Although we have
tried for a balanced overview of pertinent research in all aspects of
entomology, we must acknowledge an unavoidable bias in favor of
our own experience in the forest situation as regards choice of examples.
Nevertheless, the ideas and philosophy are broadly applicable. This
book also derives, in part, from courses in "Biological Insect Pest
Suppression" and "Insect Pathology" taught at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
We wish to thank first of all, Dr. Bruno Yaron, at whose request, on
behalf of the editors and publishers, this volume was written. We are
most appreciative of his invitation, and his aid and patience during the
unfortunately protracted time of its preparation.
Preface IX
Although it is impossible to acknowledge personally all those who
contributed to the completion of the present volume, there are several
colleagues without whom it would have been much more difficult.
Special thanks are due to all of the following who generously gave of
their time and expertise in various ways: H. A. Chittick, A. T. Drooz,
M.B.Garment, H.L.House, M.G. Klein, F.D.Morgan, H.K.Nakao,
N.E.A.Scopes, and T.H.Stovell. Many of the foregoing, and a number
of others graciously provided illustrative materials, and they are
individually acknowledged where appropriate.
Finally, we acknowledge the indispensable aid of D. M. Boush,
Ellen Huebner, and W.J.Phillipsen, who were our "legs" to the library,
and "eyes" for proofreading; Mabel Beecher, Debbie Rychlowski, and
especially Dee Ebeling, who were our "fingers" at the typewriter; and
Joyce Coppel, the senior author's wife, who put up with us both.
Madison, October 1976 H.C.COPPEL
J. W. MERTINS
Contents
Part 1 Glossary
Part 2 Historical, Theoretical, and Philosophical Bases of
Biological Insect Pest Suppression ...... 14
Chapter 2.1 Historical Development 14
2.1.1 Early History to 1888 14
2.1.2 Middle History to 1940 23
2.1.3 Middle History 1940 to 1962 29
2.1.4 Recent History (1962) to the Present 32
Chapter 2.2 Dynamics of Natural Populations as a Basis for
Biological Insect Pest Suppression .... 34
2.2.1 The Ground Rules . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.2 "Natural Control": The Ecological Basis for
Biological Insect Pest Suppression 36
2.2.3 Processes Responsible for Modifying the Size of
Insect Populations . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.4 Biological Insect Pest Suppression: Applied
Quantitative Ecology ......... 41
Chapter 2.3 Introducing Beneficial Organisms: Questions,
Concepts, and Procedures ........ 46
2.3.1 Desirable Attributes of Beneficial Organisms 47
2.3.2 Steps in Establishing a Biological Control
Program ........ . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.3 Basic Ecological Principles Bearing on Biological
Insect Pest Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Part 3 Organisms Used in Classical Biological Insect Pest
Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Chapter 3.1 Parasitoids ..... . 73
3.1.1 Taxonomic Relationships 74
3.1.2 Biological Relationships 76
3.1.3 Life Cycles of Selected Parasitoids 81
XII Contents
3.1.4 Mass Propagation Programs for Representative
Parasitoids ............ 85
3.1.5 Examples of Pest Suppression Utilizing
Parasitoids ............ 92
Chapter 3.2 Nematodes . . . . . . 98
3.2.1 Taxonomic Relationships 99
3.2.2 Biological Relationships 99
3.2.3 Examples of Insect Pest Suppression Utilizing
Nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101
Chapter 3.3 Insect Predators . . . . 105
3.3.1 Taxonomic Relationships 105
3.3.2 Biological Relationships 107
3.3.3 Life Cycles of Selected Predators 110
3.3.4 Mass Propagation Program for a Representative
Predator: Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) ........ 111
3.3.5 Examples of Pest Suppression Utilizing Insect
Predators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., 112
Chapter 3.4 Invertebrate Predators .... 115
3.4.1 Spiders (Arthropoda: Araneida) 115
3.4.2 Mites (Arthropoda: Acarina) 116
3.4.3 Hydra (Coelenterata: Hydrozoa) 116
3.4.4 Planaria (Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria) 117
Chapter 3.5 Vertebrate Predators . 119
3.5.1 Fish (Pisces) .... 119
3.5.2 Amphibi~ns (Amphibia) 122
3.5.3 Birds (Aves) .... 124
3.5.4 Mammals (Mammalia) 127
Chapter 3.6 Pathogenic Microorganisms . . . . . 130
3.6.1 Bacteria (Schizomycetes: Eubacteriales) 131
3.6.2 Viruses (Microtatobiotes: Virales) 138
3.6.3 Protozoans (Protozoa: Sporozoa and Cnidospora) 148
3.6.4 Fungi ................ 153
3.6.5 Rickettsiae (Microtatobiotes: Rickettsiales) 158
Chapter 3.7 Pest Suppression by Harmonious, Coordinated, and
Fortuitous Biological Means ........ 159
3.7.1 Harmonious Biological Insect Pest Suppression 159
3.7.2 Coordinated Biological Insect Pest Suppression 161
3.7.3 Fortuitous Biological Insect Pest Suppression 164
Contents XIII
Part 4 Manipulation of the Biological Environment for Insect
Pest Suppression . . . . . . . . 166
Chapter 4.1 Host Resistance to Pest Insects 166
4.1.1 Mechanisms of Resistance 167
4.1.2 Factors Affecting Resistance 168
4.1.3 Principles and Procedures in Utilization of Host
Resistance ................. 172
4.1.4 Examples of Host Resistance ......... 174
4.1.5 Value and Limitation of Host Resistance for Insect
Pest Suppression 180
Chapter 4.2 Environmental Manipulations and Cultural
Practices .................. 182
4.2.1 Changes in the Environment Adversely Affecting
the Pest .................. 183
4.2.2 Changes in the Environment Encouraging Natural
Enemies ................ 190
Chapter 4.3 Autocidal Control and Genetic Manipulation 197
4.3.1 Suppression or Eradication Through Induced
Sexual Sterility ............ 198
4.3.2 Genetic Manipulations of Pest Populations 204
4.3.3 Competitive Displacement ....... 208
4.3.4 Genetic Improvement of Beneficial Organisms 211
Chapter 4.4 Natural Determinants of Growth, Metamorphosis,
and Behavior 216
4.4.1 Hormones 217
4.4.2 Pheromones 223
4.4.3 Antifeedants 231
Part 5 A Fusion of Ideas 234
Chapter 5.1 Integrated Pest Suppression 235
5.1.1 The Concept of Integrated Pest Suppression 235
5.1.2 Agricultural Chemicals and Their Impact on
Biological Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.1.3 Human Education . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.1.4 Current Examples of Integrated Pest Suppression 242
Chapter 5.2 Retrospect, Introspect, and Prospect 246
5.2.1 Past Successes 246
5.2.2 Current Status 250
5.2.3 Future Directions 251
References . 256
Index . . . 303