Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation: Part B PDF
Preview Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation: Part B
Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation Part B NATO ASI Series Advance d Science Institute s Series A series presenting the results of activities sponsored by the NATO Science Committee, which aims at the dissemination of advanced scientific and technological knowledge, with a view to strengthening links between scientific communities. The series is publishe d by an internationa l board of publisher s in conjunctio n with the NATO Scientifi c Affairs Division A Life Sciences Plenum Publishin g Corporatio n B Physic s New York and London C Mathematica l and Physical Sciences Kluwer Academic Publisher s D Behaviora l and Social Sciences Dordrecht , Boston , and London E Applied Sciences F Computer and Systems Sciences Springer-Verla g G Ecologica l Sciences Berlin, Heidelberg , New York, London , H Cell Biolog y Paris, Tokyo, Hong Kong, and Barcelon a I Global Environmenta l Change Recent Volumes in this Series Volume 243A —Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation, Part A edited by Charles E. Swenberg, Gerda Horneck, and E. G. Stassinopoulo s Volume 243B —Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation, Part B edited by Charles E. Swenberg, Gerda Horneck, and E. G. Stassinopoulo s Volume 244 —Forest Development in Cold Climates edited by John Alden, J. Louise Mastrantonio , and Soren 0dum Volume 245 —Biology of Salmonella edited by Felipe Cabello Volume 246 —New Development s in Lipid-Protei n Interaction s and Receptor Function edited by K. W. A. Wirtz, L. Packer, J. A. Gustafsson , A. E. Evangelopoulos , and J. P. Changeux Volume 247—Bone Circulatio n and Vascularizatio n in Normal and Pathologica l Condition s edited by A. Schoutens , J. Arlet, J. W. M. Gardeniers , and S. P. F. Hughes Series A: Life Sciences Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation Part B Edited by Charles E. Swenberg Armed Forces Radiobiolog y Research Institut e Bethesda, Maryland and Complexit y Incorporate d Potomac, Maryland Gerda Horneck DLR Institut e of Aerospac e Medicine Cologne, Germany and E. G. Stassinopoulos NASA-Goddar d Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland Springe r Science+Busines s Media, LLC Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Study Institute on Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation, held October 13-23, 1991, in Algarve, Portugal NATO-PCO-DATA BASE The electronic index to the NATO ASI Series provides full bibliographical references (with keywords and/or abstracts) to more than 30,000 contributions from international scientists published in all sections of the NATO ASI Series. Access to th e NATO-PCO-DATA BASE is possible in two ways: —via online FILE 128 (NATO-PCO-DATA BASE) hosted by ESRIN, Via Galileo Galilei, I-00044 Frascati, Italy —via CD-ROM "NATO-PCO-DATA BASE" with user-friendly retrieval software in English, French, and German ( ©WTV GmbH and DATAWARE Technologies, Inc. 1989) The CD-ROM can be ordered through any member of the Board of Publishers or through NATO-PCO, Overijse, Belgium. Librar y of Congress Cataloglng-in-PublicatIo n Data NATO Advanced Study Institut e on Biologica l Effect s and Physics of Solar and Galacti c Cosmic Radiatio n (1991 : Algarve, Portugal ) Biologica l effect s and physic s of sola r and galacti c cosmic radiation . Part B / edite d by Charles E. Swenberg, Gerda Horneck, and E.G. Stassinopoulos . p. cm. — (NATO advanced scienc e institute s series . Serie s A, Lif e science s ; v. 243B) "Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Study Institut e on Biologica l Effect s and Physics of Solar and Galacti c Cosmic Radiation , hel d October 13-23, 1991 i n Algarve, Portugal"—T.p. verso. Includes bibliographica l reference s and index. 1. Cosmic rays—Physiological effect—Congresses. 2. Solar radiation—Physiologica l effect—Congresses. 3. Radiatio n dosimetry—Congresse.s 4..Oute r space—Exploration—Health aspects- -Congresses. I . Swenberg, Charles E. II . Horneck, G. (Gerda) III . Stassinopoulos , E. G. IV. Title . V. Series . RC1151.R33N83 1991a 616.9'897—dc20 93-8449 CIP Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http://extra.springer.com. ISBN 978-1-4613-6265-4 ISBN 978-1-4615-2916-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2916-3 ©1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1993 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1993 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher PREFACE Space missions subject human beings or any other target of a spacecraft to a radiation environment of an intensity and composition not available on earth. Whereas for missions in low earth orbit (LEO), such as those using the Space Shuttle or Space Station scenario, radiation exposure guidelines have been developed and have been adopted by spacefaring agencies, for exploratory class missions that will take the space travellers outside the protective confines of the geomagnetic field sufficient guidelines for radiation protection are still outstanding. For a piloted Mars mission, the whole concept of radiation protection needs to be reconsidered. Since there is an increasing interest of many nations and space agencies in establishing a lunar base and lor exploring Mars by manned missions, it is both, timely and important to develop appropriate risk estimates and radiation protection guidelines which will have an influence on the design and structure of space vehicles and habitation areas of the extraterrestrial settlements. This book is the result of a multidisciplinary effort to assess the state of art in our knowledge on the radiation situation during deep space missions and on the impact of this complex radiation environment on the space traveller. It comprises the lectures by the faculty members as well as short contributions by the students given at the NATO Advanced Study Institute "Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation" held in Armacao de Pera, Portugal, 12-23 October, 1991. The following scientists served on the Organizing Committee: C. E. Swenberg, Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA G. Horneck, Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fUr Luft- und Raumfahrt, Koln, Germany E.G. Stassinopoulos, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA P.D. McCormack, US Naval Medical Center, Washington D.C., USA The participants, coming from various countries including Russia, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria are listed at the end of this book. The event is in many respects a sequel to the NATO Advanced Study Institute "Terrestrial Space Radiation and its Biological Effects", Corfu, Greece, October 1987, which was mainly concerned with radiation problems for manned missions in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). During this meeting, it was emphasised that in order to safeguard future human enterprises in space, especially those of very long duration or beyond our geomagnetic shield, an intense research program has to be initiated. The program objectives should include: (1) with respect to the radiation environment in deep space missions: development of a better physical model of the galactic cosmic radiation modulation as a function of solar cycle observables; development of models of HZE particles propagation in the interplanetary medium; a better understanding on the periodicity (magnitude, duration) of a solar cycle, in order to make a prediction several years in advance; a standardized approach on an v international scale for predicting/forecasting solar flares that give rise to proton events and an efficient warning system; microdosimetric approaches in future development of space dosimetry; determination of the dose contributing products as a function of shielding; testing of new space technologies with respect to their vulnerability to space radiation; (2) with respect to biological responses to the radiation in space: selection of appropriate biological test systems for radiobiological space experiments in order to quantify and qualify various long-term biological radiation effects; analysis of the biological responses to single particle traversals; development of biological dosimeters; a better understanding of the radiobiological chain of events as a function of radiation characteristics from the initial interactions altering the essential chemical processes, such as DNA strand breaks to the biological response, e.g. cellular lethality, mutagenesis, transformation; investigation of transeffects, i. e. radiation lesions in the DNA that may lead to changes at remote sites; development of radiobiological models appropriate for determining biological effects of HZE particles; international cooperation in the analysis of radiation effects in higher organisms and humans including data obtained in space; (3) with respect to risk estimates for deep space missions: development of new and more appropriate concepts to quantitate the radiation risk in space missions; development of shielding concepts; development of countermeasures including radioprotectants, nutritional supplements; determination of the radiation tolerances of different individuals. This list is by no means complete. It reflects the need for a long-term program where ground based studies will be augmented by flight experiments, especially in high inclination orbits or on precursor missions to Moon and Mars. It was considered to be extremely important to reach a standardisation on an international level with respect to data collection, protocol comparison and formulation of guidelines for future exploratory class missions. The committee is most grateful to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization for the outstanding support provided for this meeting and for the production of this monograph. It also acknowledges substantial financial support provided by German Aerospace Research Establishment DLR, The US Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute, Bethesda MD, the US Department of Energy, and the Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination in cooperation with Oak Ridge Associated Universities. We thank Lisa Steimel for her valuable and efficient assistance in assuring that the meeting was truly successful. The editors acknowledge the advise and guidance of Mr. Gregory Safford of Plenum Press and the assistance of Dr. Mei-Lie Swenberg in typing and reorganizing the manuscripts to the final version. Charles E. Swenberg Gerda Horneck E. G. Stassinopoulos vi CONTENTS RADIATION ENVIRONMENT, DOSIMETRY, SHIELDING EFFECTS Radiation Environment during the Long Space Mission (Mars) due to Galactic Cosmic Rays .... 1 N. F Pissarenko Influence of the Geomagnetic Field and of the Solar Activity Cycle on the Cosmic Ray Energy Spectrum 15 R. Beaujean History of Energetic Solar Protons for the Past Three Solar Cycles Including Cycle 22 Update . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 M. A. Shea and D. F Smart Origins and Effects of Solar Flares 73 D. M. Rust Prediction of Solar Particle Events for Exploration Class Missions 89 G. Heckman Predicting and Modeling Solar Flare Generated Proton Fluxes in the Inner Heliosphere . . . . . . . . . . . 101 D. F Smart and M. A. Shea Solar Energy and Its Interaction with Earth's Atmosphere 119 Y. Tulunay Space Radiation Dosimetry 135 FA. Hanser and B. K. Dichter Time Resolving Detector Systems for Radiobiological Investigations of Effects of Single Heavy Ions ...... . . . . 153 J. U. Schott Microdosimetry in Space Using Microelectronic Circuits 165 P. J. McNulty, D. R. Roth, W. J. Beauvais, W. G. Abdel-Kader and E. G. Stassinopoulos Heavy-Ion Fragmentation Studies in Thick Water Absorbers 181 M. R. Shavers, J. Miller, W. Schimmerling, J. W. Wilson and L. W. Townsend Transport Methods and Interactions for Space Radiations ..... . 187 J. W. Wilson, L. W. Townsend, W. Schimmerling, G.S. Khandelwal, F Khan, J.E. Nealy, FA. Cucinotta and J.W. Norbury vii HZE Reactions and Data-Base Development . . . . 787 L. W. Townsend, F. A. Cucinotta and J. W. Wilson Plans for a New Ground Based Space Radiation Research Facility in the USA ................ . 811 P. Thieberger RADIATION EXPOSURE IN MANNED SPACE FLIGHT, RISK ESTIMATES, PROTECTION Relating Space Radiation Environments to Risk Estimates 817 S. B. Curtis Solar Particle Dose Rate Buildup and Distribution in Critical Body Organs 831 W. Atwell, M. D. Weyland and L. C. Simonsen Numerical Simulation of 'DMSP' Dosimeter Response 845 T. M. Jordan The Relative Biological Effectiveness of Attenuated Protons . . . . . . . 853 J. B. Robertson, W. C. Glisson, J. o. Archambeau, G. B. Coutrakan, D. W. Miller, M. F. Moyers, J. F. Siebers, J. M. Slater and J. F. Dicello Radiation: What Determines the Risk? 859 R. E. J. Mitchel and A. Trivedi Radiation Protection for Human Interplanetary Spaceflight and Planetary Surface Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 B. C. Clark Experience, Lessons Learned and Methodology in the Design of Space Systems to Accommodate Total Dose and SEU Effects . . . . . . . . .. 889 J. H. Trainor Radiological Operational Scenario for a Permanent Lunar Base 905 P. D. McCormack Space Radiation Issues within the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) 917 T. E. Ward Participants 925 Glossary 929 Index 935 viii RADIATION ENVIRONMENT DURING THE LONG SPACE MISSION (MARS) DUE TO GALACTIC COSMIC RAYS N.F. Pissarenko Space Research Institute Moscow, 117810, USSR ABSTRACT Galactic cosmic radiation {GCR} mostly determines dose equivalents inside the spacecraft during long-term manned missions in space. In this paper some new results are collected concerning different characteristics of GCR's. Together with earlier obtained data they show that during most part of the solar cycle such spaceflights are not possible. Attention is drawn to very great errors in the estimates of dose equivalent and shielding thickness. GALACTIC COSMIC RADIATION The galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) is one of the main factors which determine the radiation situation during long-term (longer than one year) manned space missions. Energetic charged particles of galactic and extragalactic origin observed in the interplanetary medium are called galactic cosmic rays. Observations show that inside a spacecraft this radiation can be assumed to be isotropic, in practice, though due to the presence of the magnetic field of solar origin in the he1iosphere there is some weak anisotropy of GCR towards the Sun which does not exceed several percent of their total flux. Galactic cosmic rays are characterized by a wide energy spectrum from several tens of MeV to 1020 eV, and even greater. The GCR integral flux with E > 30 MeV observed in the interplanetary medium near the Earth (inside our heliosphere) depends on the place in the solar = = activity cycle being during minimum-activity years equal to N 4.5 partecm·2 s·' and N 2 partecm·2es·' during maximum-activity years. This galactic radiation intensity modulation in the near~earth space is caused by the 11-year solar activity cycle (see Fig. 1; Mavromishalaki et al, 1989). The solar activity cycle is characterized by the variation of the solar spot number (Wolf numbers) and by the appearance of different forms of the solar activity mainly associated with the amplification of local magnetic fields in the photosphere and atmosphere of the Sun (active regions, flares, transients and so on). The GCR consists of 83% protons, 13% a-particles, and about 1% nuclei with Z>2; the electron component is about 3% of the total flux. It should be noted that electrons with energy E < 20 Me V are mostly of Jupiter origin. Table 1 (Smart and Shea, 1985) illustrates in detail the composition of galactic cosmic rays. GCR nuclei with Z>2 are classified as several charge groups: L-(light nuclei, 3<Z<5), M-(medium nuclei,6<Z<8), LM- (semi-heavy nuclei, 9<Z<14), Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation, Part B, Edited by C.E. Swenberg et al., Plenum Press, New Yom, 1993 H- (heavy nuclei, 15<Z<19), and vH- (very heavy nuclei, 20<Z<28). Often the charge group = = from manganese (Mn, Z 25) to nickel (Ni, Z 27) is called the iron group. According to L.I. Dorman (1977) the GCR nucleon spectrum observed in the quiet time (i.e., in absence of flares and Forbush decreases) can be subdivided into five intervals: '", 200 1000 / + I _ 0.2 /7', " a~... .2:- I 'c> J, 0\ .~ 0.4 \' xl/ J (.. . "j ~ ~." ". 100 500 ~ 0.6 l i i .~ 50 250 8 0.8 /':-'" 20th cycle .,' l /' 1.0 a 0 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 Years Fig, 1 Neutron monitor data. sunspot number and solar flares during the 20 and 21 solar cycles. Table 1 Composition of Galactic Cosmic Rays 10115 Z Group Abundance for E) 450 MeV INuc. He 2 Ct 44700 ± 500 Li 3 1921:4 Be 4 L 94 ±2.5 B 5 329±5 C 6 1130± 12 N 7 M 278 ±S 0 8 1000 F 9 24 ± 1.5 Ne 10 158± 3 Na II LH 29± 1.5 Mg 12 203± 3 AI 13 36 ± 1.5 Si 14 141 ± 3 p 15 7.5:!: 0.6 S 16 34 ± 1.5 CI 17 H 9.0 ± 0.6 Ar 18 14.2±0.9 K 19 10.1 ± 0.7 Ca 20 26 ± 1.3 Sc 21 6.3 ± 0.6 Ti 22 vH 14.1 ±0.9 V 23 9.5 ± 0.7 Cr 24 15.1 ±0.9 ---------- ---------- -------------- ----------------------------------- Mn 25 11.6± 1.0 Fe 26 Fe 103 ±2.5 Ni 27 5.6 ±0.6 2
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