Biological Control by Augmentation of Natural Enemies: Insect and Mite Control with Parasites and Predators

479 Pages·1977·11.4 MB·English

by  C. B. Huffaker, R. L. Rabb, J. A. Logan (auth.), R. L. Ridgway, S. B. Vinson (eds.)

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
BY AUGMENTATION
OF NATURAL ENEMIES
Insect and Mite Control with Parasites and Predators
Environmental Science Research
Editorilli Board
Alexander HoUaender
Associated Univenities, Inc.
Washington, D.C.
Ronald F. Probstein
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
E. S. Starkman
General Moton Technical Center
Warren, Michigan
Bruce L. Welch
Environmental Biomedicine Research, Inc.
and
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, Maryland
Volume I-INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
Edited by William A. Thomas
Volume 2-POLLUTION: ENGINEERING AND SCIENTIFIC SOLUTIONS
Edited by Euval S. Barrekette
Volume 3-ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION BY PESTICIDES
Edited by C. A. Edwards
Volume 4 -MASS SPECTROMETRY AND NMR SPECTROSCOPY IN
PESTICIDE CHEMISTRY
Edited by Rizwanul Haque and Francis J. Biros
Volume 5 - BEHAVIORAL TOXICOLOGY
Edited by Bernard Weiss and Victor G. Laties
Volume 6 -ENVIRONMENTAL DYNAMICS OF PESTICIDES
Edited by Rizwanul Haque and V. H. Freed
Volume 7 - ECOLOGICAL TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH: Effects of Heavy
Metal and Organohalogen Compounds
Edited by A. D. McIntyre and C. F. Mills
Volume 8-HARVESTING POLLUTED WATERS: Waste Heat and Nutrient-Loaded
Effluents in the Aquaculture
Edited by O. Devik
Volume 9-PERCEIVING ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY: Research and Applications
Edited by Kenneth H. Craik and Ervin H. Zube
VolumelO-PESTICIDES IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
Edited by Mohammed Abdul Quddus Khan
Volume 1 1-BIOLOGICAL CONTROL BY AUGMENTATION OF NATURAL ENEMIES
Insect and Mite Control with Parasites and Predators
Edited by R. L. Ridgway and S. B. Vinson
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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
BY AUGMENTATION
OF NATURAL ENEMIES
Insect and Mite Control with Parasites and Predators
Edited by
R. L. Ridgway
u.s. Deportment of Agriculture
Beltwille, Maryland
and
s.
B.Vinson
TexflS A d: M Univerrity
College Station, Texas
PLENUM PRESS· NEW YORK AND LONDON
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ISBN 978-1-4684-2873-5 ISBN 978-1-4684-2871-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4684-2871-1
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PREFACE
The protection of agricultural crops, forest, and man and his
domestic animals from annoyance and damage by various kinds of
pests remains a chronic problem. As we endeavor to improve pro
duction processes and to develop more effective and acceptable
tactics for achieving this protection, we must give high priority
to all potentially useful techniques for the control and management
of insects.
Pest control is recognized as an acceptable and necessary part
of modern agriculture. Methods employed vary greatly and tend to
reflect compromises involving 3 determining factors: technological
capability, economic feasibility, and social acceptability. How
ever, these factors are also subject to change with time since each
involves value judgments that are based on available information,
cost, benefit considerations, the seriousness of the pest problem,
and the political climate. Whatever method is chosen, energy
resources continue to dwindle under the impact of increasing popu
lation, and it is inevitable that greater reliance must be placed
upon renewable resources in pest management. One alternative is
the use of a pest management method that uses the energy of the
pest's own biomass to fuel a self-perpetuating control system.
The use of biological control agents for the control of pests
has long been an integral part of the pest management strategy in
crop production and forestry and in the protection of man and
animals. The importance and unique advantages of the method are
well recognized; numerous treatises deal with accomplishments and
methodologies. Also, there have been significant developments in
the past decade. The implementation of new pest management tactics
and concomitant changes in production methods will certainly require
increased reliance on biological control methods. Their appears to
be new opportunities for the use of biological control agents based
on developing research. With increased understanding of the genetics,
the population biology of biocontrol agents, and of the factors that
influence their behavior, the practical application of these methods
v
PREFACE
becomes more complicated but potentially more useful. In addition,
the use of biological control agents is inextricably interconnected
with social economic and environmental factors that cannot be ignored.
Insects have the potential to increase their numbers dramatic
ally and to adjust their numbers in response to the dynamic environ
ment in which they occur. Nevertheless, changes in population
numbers often occur slowly because of the continual adjustment caused
by abiotic and biotic factors. Pest situations arise as a result of
environmental disturbances of an unusual nature or degree. Although
catastrophic disturbances over which man has little control such as
floods and droughts may induce insect or pest outbreaks, man
generates many of his own pest problems. The introduction of
potential pests, either intentionally or accidentally, into favor
able environments where natural enemies are not present often leads
to serious pest problems. The growth of susceptible crops or
animals is an essentially monocu1ture situation where host abundance
allows for a buildup of large pest populations is of common occur
rence. The widespread disruption of the ecosystem that occurs when
crops are planted or harvested destroys not only alternate hosts
for biological control agents but reduces food, shelter, and ovi
pOSition material, which seriously limits the effective response
of the biological control agent to pest resurgence. The use of
pesticides that adversely affect beneficial organisms and that
induce the development of resistance in the pest populations, which
frees the pest from the biological control agent may also occur.
It has been estimated that over 10,000 species of insects and
mites reduce yields of crop plants throughout the world. In North
America, about 700 species of arthropods are considered serious
pests; of these, about one-third have been accidentally introduced.
Annual losses in agriculture to insects in the United States have
been estimated to amount to 13% of production valued at over 7
billion dollars. Much of this loss has occurred in spite of the
widespread use of insecticides. Additionally, there is a real con
cern for the impact on the environment of the over one billion
pounds of pesticides used in the United States each year.
The biological control of insects is a very broad concept
encompassing a number of strategies and techniques. Many pest
problems have resulted from the importation of insects from one
region to another where there are no natural enemies. Many of these
insects are not serious pests in their native habitat, presumably
because they are controlled by natural biotic factors. One of the
solutions to such a pest situation is the classical approach to
biological control, i.e., the search for and introduction of exotic
biotic agents. This classical approach (search, importation,
release, and establishment of the biological control agent of intro
duced pests) has been particularly successful in the more stable
PREFACE
environments. It has been less than satisfactory in intensified
agroecosystems. In fact, it is the existence of annually disrupted
agroecosystems that has emphasized the need for a different approach
to the biological control of pests, whether native or exotic, in
many of these situations. Such annual disruption often occurs at
a time that is particularly important in the growth of the population
of natural enemies. Also, in a simplified ecosystem the alternate
hosts or the food needed by the beneficial arthropods may be lacking.
Such situations of the type described have led to the develop
ment of different approaches to the biological control of pests in
continually disrupted agroecosystems or in situations where the
beneficial arthropods are unable to permanently establish in or to
rapidly invade expanding pest populations. In such cases programmed
releases of beneficial insects, sustained reintroductions, and manip
ulation of the ecosystem through increased diversification providing
supplementary hosts and food sources, attracting and stimulating
natural enemies through the use of kairomones appear to be among
potentially important methods.
Natural enemies of insects and mites not only include beneficial
arthropods but nematodes, microbial agents, snails, and vertebrates.
However, the specific treatment of the augmentation of parasites and
predators (insects, mites, and nematodes) in the current treatise,
was designed to provide a review of the use of these organisms in
augmentations, thus resulting in the first book devoted exclusively
to this important subject. The book developed from a symposium on
the augmentation of natural enemies held at the 15th International
Congress of Entomology in Washington, D.C. in 1976. Dr. R. I.
Sailer, University of Florida, and Dr. P. S. Messenger, now deceased,
University of California at Berkeley, provided valuable assistance
to the senior editor in organizing the symposium.
The book is divided into 4 sections. The first section brings
into focus some of the biological principles that provide a basis
for the augmentation of natural enemies. The chapter by Huffaker,
Rabb, and Logan (Chapter 1) points out the importance of under
standing the principles of population dynamics in any augmentation
program. Only with thorough and careful analysis of the dynamics
of both the pest and parasite or predator populations can a realis
tic approach to an augmentation program be undertaken.
Some of the ecological considerations in augmentation such as
reduced insecticide use, selective insecticide use, the importance
of a diversified ecosystem, and the importance of ecotypes of
beneficial insects are pointed out through examples in the Russian
literature by Shumakov (Chapter 2). The potential for control
through the release of natural enemies is described by Knip1ing in
Chapter 3. In Chapter 4, Gordh discusses the importance of bio-
viii PREFACE
systematics in choosing the proper beneficial arthropod for augmen
tation purposes. He also points out the importance of biotypes and
the difficulty in establishing the identity of these races.
The second section of the book deals with some of the poten
tially important methodology that may have an important impact on
augmentation approaches to control with natural enemies. House
(Chapter 5) points out the possibility of improving the vigor, fecun
dity and longevity of natural enemies through improved nutrition and
provides insight into the laboratory rearing of beneficial arthropods.
The chapter by Morrison and King (Chapter 6) describes a number of
examples of mass rearing of natural enemies for various release pro
grams, and many techniques are described through examples. The
importance of maintaining the quality of mass-reared natural enemies
is described in Chapter 7 by Boller and Chambers. As these authors
note, fecundity, longevity, and normal sex ratio are important, but
the ecological adaptability, environmental preference, and behavioral
characteristics that influence host or prey selection and specificity
must also be considered. The potential of behavioral manipulation
of natural enemies through the use of behavioral chemicals is dis
cussed by Vinson (Chapter 8). In Chapter 8, the importance of
behavioral and chemical data is stressed and the potential for the
use of some kairomones in augmentation as well as the dangers of
using these compounds is described.
Section 3 is devoted to describing and discussing the success
ful augmentation approaches to natural enemy action in various
regions of the world. Many of the techniques, procedures, and
strategies employed in the development of augmentation programs
are described. The successes and methods employed in the U.S.S.R.,
and reference to much important literature, are provided by
Beg1yarov and Smetnik (Chapter 9). The situation in the People's
Republic of China is reviewed by Huffaker (Chapter 10) who provides
insight into the augmentation of natural enemies in a region of the
world that has employed some unique systems of mass production.
A review of natural enemy augmentation in Western Europe is
provided by Bi1iotti (Chapter 11), and Scopes and Hussey, in
Chapter 12. describes the unique situation in glasshouses where an
integrated approach is used that involves both augmentation and
pesticides. The success in a closed system such as glasshouses
provides clues to the potential for success in the larger, more
difficult agroecosystems. Augmentation in the Western Hemisphere
is reviewed by Ridgway. King. and Corri110 (Chapter 13). Examples
of successes. costs. and potential for improvements are documented.
Those interested in augmentation of natural enemies of pests asso
ciated with man and animals have a different view. and many examples.
particularly with reference to the Diptera. are provided in Chapter
14 by Weidhaas and Morgan. This chapter also includes a discussion
of the use of nematodes for mosquito control.
PREFACE ix
The last section, Chapter 15 by Starler and Ridgway, is con
cerned with the economic feasibility of mass rearing and release of
natural enemies and with problems associated with this kind of invest
ment. It contains an assessment of the different possible routes
that can be taken in establishing natural enemy augmentation pro
grams. The socio-economic considerations in this chapter are par
ticularly relevant to the development of a viable augmentation
approach to control.
The editors would like to acknowledge that some of the material
used in this preface came from a report entitled "Biological Agents
for Pest Control: Current Status and Future Prospects" developed by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the Land
Grant Universities, State Departments of Agriculture. and the Agri
cultural Research Institute. The editors would like to express
their appreciation to Ms. Shirley Gray and Ms. Vicki Bienski for
providing assistance in developing the book and typing much of the
manuscript. The editors also want to express their thanks to
Ms. Patricia Vinson, Ms. Kathryn Edson, Mr. William Worsley, and
Jane Wall for their invaluable help and editorial assistance.
Chapters 2 and 9 were translated from Russian by Ms. Ruth Busbey
and Mr. William Worsley. The editors also thank their wives for
their support and patience.
Beltsville, MD S.B. V.
June 1977 R.L.R.
CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
I. Biological Bases for Augmentation
1. Some Aspects of Population Dynamics Relative
to Augmentation of Natural Enemy Action . . . 3
C. B. Huffaker, R. L. Rabb and J. A. Logen
2. Ecological Principles Associated with
Augmentation of Natural Enemies . . . 39
E. M. Shumakov
3. The Theoretical Basis for Augmentation of
Natural Enemies . 79
E. F. Knipling
4. Biosystematics of Natural Enemies . . . • • • • • 125
G. Gordh
II. Scientific Thrusts Supporting Augmentation
5. Nutrition of Natural Enemies 151
H. L. House
6. Mass Production of Natural Enemies 183
R. K. Morrison and E. G. King
7. Quality Aspects of Mass-Reared Insects 219
E. F. Boller and D. L. Chambers
8. Behavioral Chemicals in the Augmentation
of Natural Enemies. 237
S. B. Vinson
xi