Biological Control

543 Pages·1996·26.42 MB·English

by  Roy G. Van Driesche, Thomas S. Bellows Jr. (auth.)

Biological
Control
Biological
Control
Roy G. VAN DRIESCHE
Department of Entomology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA
THOMAS S. BELLOWS, JR.
Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Van Driesche, R.G.
Biological control I Roy G. Van Driesche and Thomas S. Bellows, IT.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13:978-1-4612-8490-1 e-ISBN-13978-1-4613-1157-7
DOT: I 0.1 007/978-1-4613-1157-7
I. Pests--Biological control. 2. Pollination by animals. 3. Pollination by
insects. 4. Angiosperms--Evolution. 1. Bellows, T.S. n. Title
SB975.V375 1996 95-31557
632'.96--dc20 CIP
Copyright © 1996 by Chapman & Hall
Sotlcover reprint ofthe hardcover I st edition 1996
Third Printing 2001 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
Cover photos courtesy of: 1.A. MacDonald, P. Kenmore, and J.K. Clark.
Cover design: Robert Freese
This printing is a digital duplication of the original edition.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher, K1uwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip
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Printed on acid-free paper.
CONTENTS
Prtiface , , , xi
SECTION I ORIGINS AND SCOPE OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 1
CHAPTER 1 PEST ORIGINS, PESTICIDES AND THE HISTORY OF
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Human Needs and the Origins of Pests ,.,.,',.,',.".".,",.,"" .... "., 3
Problems with Pesticides ' , , ' , , , , . , , ..... , , , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , , , , , , . , . ' , . , , 4
Definition of Biological Pest Control , .. """"', .. ," .... "','" ... ,,,',.' 6
History of Biological Control """ .. "."",."" .. " .. """"",.""" 7
The Historical Record of Biological Control Efforts """"""', .. ,"',.,"" 19
Biological Control and Integrated Pest Management . , ' , , ' . , , . , , , , , , ..... ' , , . , 20
CHAPTER 2 KINDS OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL TARGETS,
AGENTS, AND METHODS ........................ 21
Targets of Biological Control """""""""""""""""""""'" 21
Kinds of Biological Control Agents """"""""""""""""""'" 23
Principal Biological Control Methods, , , ' , , , , ' . ' . , .. , , , . , , . , , ' . , , , , , . , , , . , , 31
SECTION /I A REVIEW OF THE ORGANISMS EMPLOYED AS
AGENTS OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
CHAPTER 3 PARASITOIDS AND PREDATORS OF ARTHROPODS
AND MOLLUSCS ................................ 37
Introduction .... , , , . , , .. ' , , , , , , . , ' , , .. , , .. , , , . , ' .. , , , , , , , , , . , , .. , , , , , , , , 37
Insects Parasitic on Arthropods and Snails """",."""."."""",.",. 37
Insects Predacious on Arthropods """""""""""""""""""'" 53
Arachnids Predacious on Arthropods ", .... ,.', ... ,.,',",'., .. ,',",.,.,' 60
Predacious or Competitor Snails , , , , , , . , , , . , , , .. , , ' , . , , . , , , , , , , , .. , , , ... , , . 64
Vertebrates (Mammals, Birds, Fish) ",.""" ... """",."""" ... ,.,... 65
"
vi BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
CHAPTER 4 PATHOGENS AND NEMATODES OF ARTHROPODS,
AND PATHOGENS OF VERTEBRATES .............. . 66
Pathogens of Pest Arthropods .................................. . 66
Pathogens of Pest Vertebrates ...................................... . 77
CHAPTER 5 HERBIVORES AND PATHOGENS USED FOR
BIOLOGICAL WEED CONTROL ................... . 78
Introduction ................................. . 78
Insects and Mites ...................................................... . 79
Fungal Pathogens ....................................... . 89
Nematodes ................................. . 91
Vertebrates .................................... . 91
CHAPTER 6 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS FOR PLANT
PATHOGENS ................................... . 93
Introduction ........................................................... . 93
Root Pathogens ........................................................ . 93
Stem Pathogens ....................................................... . 94
Leaf Pathogens ........................................................ . 95
Flower and Fruit Pathogens ............................................. . 97
Plant-Parasitic Nematodes ............................................... . 98
Summary .......................................................... . 101
SECTION III METHODS FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
IMPLEMENTATION. . . .. . .. ... .... . .. .. . . .. ...... 103
CHAPTER 7 NATURAL ENEMY CONSERVATION 105
Introduction ........................................................... . 105
concepts ................................... . ............ . 105
Use of Agricultural Chemicals .................................... . 108
Management of Soil, Water, and Crop Residues ............................. . 117
Crop Patterns ......................................................... . 119
Manipulation of Non-Crop Vegetation .................................... . 122
Providing Food or Shelter .............................................. . 125
Safety ........................................................... . 127
CHAPTER 8 INTRODUCTION OF NEW NATURAL ENEMIES:
PRINCIPLES .................................... . 128
Introduction ........................................................... . 128
Case History Examples ......................................... . 129
Outcomes of Biological Control Programs ......................... . 134
Ecological Rationale for Natural Enemy Introduction ............... . 136
CONTENTS vii
Programs for Natural Enemy Introduction 139
Costs, Social Benefits, and Safety .. 155
CHAPTER 9 INTRODUCTION OF NEW NATURAL ENEMIES:
METHODS ...................................... 158
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
The Collecting Trip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Shipping Procedures .................................................... 162
Processing Material in Quarantine ......................................... 166
Safety ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Field Colonization Procedures ............................................ 172
CHAPTER 10 AUGMENTATION OF PARASITOIDS, PREDATORS,
AND BENEFICIAL HERBIVORES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178
Introduction. .......................................................... 178
Agent Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Cost ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Storage and Shipping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Application Methods ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Product Evaluation ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Market Development and Continuity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Natural Enemies in Current Use .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Safety ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
CHAPTER 11 AUGMENTATION OF PATHOGENS AND
NEMATODES ................................... 201
Introduction . 201
Agent Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Storage and Shipping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Formulation and Application ................ ............................ 215
Evaluation ............................................................. 219
Product Development ................................................... 225
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
CHAPTER 12 METHODS FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PLANT
PATHOGENS ................................... 235
Introduction . .. ........................................................ 235
Paradigms of Biological Control of Plant Pathogens .......................... 235
Habitat Characteristics ................................................... 236
Mechanisms of Biological Control of Plant Pathogens ........................ 238
Conservation ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Augmentation ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Developing and Using Beneficial Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
viii BiOlOGICAL CONTROL
SECTION IV EVALUATION AND INTEGRATION 257
CHAPTER 13 NATURAL ENEMY MONITORING AND
EVALUATION .................................. . 259
Introduction ........................................................... . 259
Surveys to Document Natural Enemy-Pest Associations ...................... . 259
Monitoring Progress of Introduction Projects ............................... . 260
Sampling Natural Enemies for Pest Management ............................ . 261
Evaluation of Population Effects of Natural Enemies ......................... . 264
Simulation Models and the Evaluation of Natural Enemies ................... . 293
Documentation, Economic Evaluation, and Planning ........................ . 294
Planning .............................................................. . 295
CHAPTER 14 INTEGRATION OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL INTO
PEST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS .................. . 296
Introduction ........................................................... . 296
Pest Management Systems: Foundations, and Transitions .. , .................. . 296
Combinations of Factors and Their Integration ....... , .................... ,. 300
Integrating Natural Enemies into Pest Management Systems .................. . 303
SECTION V NATURAL ENEMY BIOLOGY ..................... . 307
CHAPTER 15 BIOLOGY OF ARTHROPOD PARASITOIDS AND
PREDATORS ................................... . 309
Introduction ....................................... , .. , , ............... . 309
Finding Habitats and Hosts .............................................. . 309
Host Patch Exploitation and Abandonment Patterns . , ... , .. , ...... , . , ..... , .. 316
Host Recognition and Assessment ... ,", ................................ ,. 320
Overcoming Host or Prey Defenses ...................... , ........... , .... . 325
Host Regulation and Physiological Interactions ....... , ..................... . 329
Learning by Natural Enemies ............................. , .............. . 331
Effects of Plant Features on Natural Enemies ............................... . 333
Synchrony and Natural Enemy Races ............... , ...... , ....... , ...... . 335
CHAPTER 16 BIOLOGY AND DYNAMICS OF PATHOGENS ..... . 337
Introduction .............. , .................. , , .. , ....... , ............. . 337
Basic Processes in Pathogen Biology ..................... , ............... , . 337
Epizootiology of Arthropod Pathogens .................................... . 342
Bacterial Pathogens of Arthropods ............ , ........... , ............... , 345
Viral Pathogens of Arthropods ............... ' .......... , ........... , .... . 346
Fungal Pathogens of Arthropods ..................... , ................... , 347
Protozoan Pathogens of Arthropods ... , ........................... , ...... . 348
Nematodes Pathogenic in Arthropods . , ................................... . 349
Case Histories I. Two Viruses ..................... , ................... , .. 351
CONTENTS ix
Case Histories II. Two Bacteria ......................................... . 351
Case Histories III. Two Nematodes ...................................... . 352
CHAPTER 77 BIOLOGY OF WEED CONTROL AGENTS 354
Introduction ............................................... . 354
Herbivorous Invertebrates ............................................... . 354
Plant Pathogens ................... . ............... . 364
Herbivorous Fish ................................................. . 365
CHAPTER 78 POPULATION REGULATION THEORY AND
IMPLICATIONS FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 367
Introduction ........................................................... . 367
Single-Species Populations .............................................. . 369
Interspecific Competition ............................................... . 372
Host-Parasitoid Systems ................................................. . 375
Host-Pathogen Systems ................................................. . 390
Multispecies Systems ................................................... . 393
Implications for Biological Control ....................................... . 397
Biological Control Systems and Ecological Evaluations , ...................... . 398
SECTION VI ADDITIONAL TOPICS .......................... . 399
CHAPTER 79 THE ROLE OF GROWER EDUCATION IN
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL ........................ . 401
Introduction ...................................... , ......... , .......... . 401
Type of Information Needed by Growers ........................... , ..... , . 401
Training Media ........ ,................. . ...... ' ..................... . 408
Training of Extension Agents ...... , ...... , ...... , ... , ................... . 409
Teaching Biological Control to Politicians ...... , ........................... . 413
Communicating with Environmental Groups ............................... . 414
CHAPTER 20 GOVERNMENT POLICY AND BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL .................................... . 415
Introduction .. , .......... . 415
Pesticide Policies ........ ,. 415
Quarantine and Eradication Policies , .......... , ......... , ................ . 417
Agricultural Development Policies ........................................ . 419
Pest Management Policies ............................. , ... , ............ , . 420
Biological Control Policies ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. . 421
Use of Genetically-Modified Organisms .................... , .......... , ... . 423
CHAPTER 27 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL IN SUPPORT OF NATURE
CONSERVATION ............................... . 424
Introduction ............................................... , ........... . 424
Restorative Ecology through Biological Control ... , .................... , .... . 424
x BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Factors Promoting Adventive Species Invasions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Effects of Adventive Species ............................. . . . . . . . . . 428
Biological Control for Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Suppressing Adventive Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Safety ................................................................. 442
CHAPTER 22 FUTURE PROSPECTS 444
REFERENCES 447
INDEX...................................................... 522
PREFACE
Nearly twenty years have passed since the publishing of a broadly-based texthook on hiolog
ical control (Huffaker and Messinger 1976). In the interim, other works on biological control
have been either briefer treatments (DeBach and Rosen 1991), or collections of essays on
selected topics (Waage and Greathead 1986; Mackauer and Ehler 1990). Our text has been
written to fill what we believe is a need for a well-integrated, broadly-based text of appropriate
length and degree of technical detail for teaching a one semester upper level course in
hiological control. We have attempted to focus on principles and concepts, rather than on
biological control of particular taxa or hiological control by particular kinds of natural enemies.
Therefore, for example, the reader will find the material on biological control of weeds
integrated with biological control of insects and mites into chapters on principles, techniques,
and applications rather than presented separately. Only biological control of plant pathogens is
addressed independently, an appraoch made necessary by the many special features and
concepts in plant pathogen biological control.
In addition to essential material on such expected topics as natural enemy introduction,
taxonomy of natural enemies, and the history of the discipline, we have sought to emphasize
several areas we view as of special importance. In particular, we have emphasized natural
enemy evaluation (Chapter 13) as a key feature of biological control studies. We have devel
oped new treatments on conservation of natural enemies (Chapter 7) and biological control of
environmental pests (Chapter 21). We have also explored topics of a broader nature, such as the
philosophy of integration of biological control in pest management systems (Chapter 14), the
role of extension in teaching biological control to farmers (Chapter 19), and the effects of
government policies on the degree to which biological control is employed (Chapter 20).
This text has been written to encourage training of a new generation of biological control
scientists committed to hoth the understanding of biological control and its safe use to solve
pest problems. Biological control, while enjoying a century of practical use, is a critically
important means of addressing current pest problems in both crop protection and the preserva
tion of natural systems. It is our hope that this text will contribute to the training of scientists
who achieve tomorrow's successes in biological control.
Preparation of this book benefitted in many ways from interactions with and contributions
from colleagues. The hook's early development and outline was aided by discussions with
J. Waage and P. Kenmore. Reviews of the book in part or whole, were contributed by F. Bigler,
C. Campbell, R. Charudattan, W. Coli, J. Coulson, E. Delfosse, J. Elkinton, T. Fisher, H. Frank,
L. Gilkeson, R. Goeden, D. Headrick, M. Hoddle, M. Hoffmann, D. Hogg, M.Johnson, H. Kaya,
J. van Lenteren, N. Lepla, J. Lewis, C. McCoy, D. Meyerdirk, O. Minkenberg, R. Prokopy, M.
Samways, M. Schauff, J. Sutton, B. Vinson, J. Waage, and M. Wilson. M. Hassell assisted in
composing portions of Chapter 18. Assistance in checking the names and authors of species in
xi