Biogeography and Ecology of Turkmenistan

653 Pages·1994·12.44 MB·English

by  Victor Fet (auth.), Victor Fet, Khabibulla I. Atamuradov (eds.)

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY OF TURKMENISTA N
MONOGRAPHIAE
BIOLOGICAE
VOLUM E 72
Series Editors
H.J. Dumont and MJ.A. Werger
The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Biogeography and Ecology of
Turkmenistan
Edited by
VICTOR FET
Dept. of Biological Sciences ,Loyola University, New Orleans ,Louisiana, USA
and
KHABIBULL A I. ATAMURADO V
Natural Conservation Society ,Ashgabat ,Turkmenistan
Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Biogeography and ecology of Turkmenistan / edite d by Victo r Fet and
Khabibull a Atamuradov.
p. cm. — (Monographiae biologica e ; v. 72)
Includes index.
ISBN 978-94-010-4487-5 ISBN 978-94-011-1116-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-1116-4
1. Biogeography—Turkmenistan. 2. Ecology—Turkmenistan.
I. Fet , Victor . II .A tamuradov, Kh. I . (Khabibull a Ishchanovich )
III . Series .
QP1.P37 vol . 72
[QH191]
574 s~dc20
[574.958*5] 94-6952
ISBN 978-94-010-4487-5
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved
© 1994 Springer Science+Busines sMedia Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academci Publishesr in 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any mean,s electronci or mechanica, lincluding photocopying, recording or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
Table of Contents
List of contributors vii
1. Introduction: One hundredy earso f natural history in Turkmenistan
V. Fet
2. Landscapeso f Turkmenistan 5
A.G. Babaev
3. Climate of Turkmenistan 23
N.S. Orlovsky
4. Paleogeographoy f Turkmenistan 49
K.I. Atamuradov
5. Desertificationo f the arid lands of Turkmenistan 65
N.G. Kharin
6. Vegetationo f the desertso f Turkmenistan 77
I.G. Rustamov
7. Flora of Kopetdagh 105
D. Kurbanov
8. Kopetdagh-Khorassafnlo ra: Regionalf eatureso f Central
Kopetdagh 129
G.L. Kamakhina
9. Vegetationo f SouthwestK opetdagh 149
G.N. Fet
10. Trees, shrubs,a nd semis hrubsi n the mountainso f Turkmenistan 173
K.P. Popov
11. Ecosystems tructureo f subtropicala rid pistachiow oodlandsi n
SouthernT urkmenistan 187
R.I. Zlotin
12. Biogeographicp osition of Khorassan-Kopetdagh 197
V. Fet
13. Vertebratesin the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan 205
A.K. Rustamov& O. Sopyev
14. Ecology of the beardedg oat (Capra aegagrusE rsleben,1 777)
in Turkmenistan 231
V.M. Korshunov
15. Ecology of birds in the Karakum Desert 247
A.K. Rustamov
vi Table of Contents
16. Ecological structureo f the bird populationi n the Transcaspian
region: Cartographica nalysisa nd problemso f conservation 265
E.A. Rustamov
17. Kidney structurea nd its role in osmoregulationin desertb irds 281
M.A. Amanova
18. On the evolution of the pheasan(tP hasianusc olchicus L.) in
Middle Asia 295
AV. Solokha
19. Zoogeographica nalysiso f the reptiles of Turkmenistan 307
N.N. Shcherbak
20. Reptileso f Kopetdagh 329
C. Ataev, A.K. Rustamov& S. Shammakov
21. Geographicv ariability of Phrynocephalusro ssikowi Nik. (Reptilia:
Agamidae)i n Turkmenistana nd adjacentr egions 351
M.L. Golubev, V.V. Manilo & AA Tokar
22. Formationo f the fish populationi n the artificial hydrographic
network of Turkmenistan( the AmudaryaR iver basin) 365
V.B. Salnikov
23. Arthropodsi nhabiting rodent burrows in the Karakum Desert 389
V.A Krivokhatsky
24. Zoogeographyo f Coleopterain Turkmenistan 403
O.L. Kryzhanovsky& K.1. Atamuradov
25. Buprestidb eetles( Coleoptera:B uprestidae)f rom Kopetdagha nd
the adjacentr egions of SouthernT urkmenistan 419
M.G. Volkovich & AV. Alexeev
26. Fauna,z oogeographya, nd ecology of Orthopterai n Turkmenistan 451
T. Tokgaev
27. Encyrtid waspso f Turkmenistan( Hymenoptera:E ncyrtidae) 467
S.N. Myartseva
28. Zoogeographya nd ecologicala spectso f the formation of horse
fly fauna (Diptera: Tabanidae)in Turkmenistan 481
R.V. Andreeva
29. Ant-lions (Neuroptera:M yrmeleontidae)i n Turkmenistan 495
V.A Krivokhatsky
30. Faunaa nd zoogeographyo f spiders( Aranei) of Turkmenistan 499
K.G. Mikhailov & V. Fet
31. Faunaa nd zoogeographyo f scorpions( Arachnida: Scorpions)
in Turkmenistan 525
V. Fet
32. Faunaa nd zoogeographyo f molluscs of Turkmenistan 535
Y.I. Starobogatov
Bibliography 545
Index of Taxa 605
Index of Subjects 637
List of Contributors
AMANOV A, M.B., Department of Biology, Turkmen State University,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
ANDREEVA, R.V., 1.1. SchmalhausenI nstitute of Zoology, Ukrainian
Academyo f Sciences,K iev, Ukraine.
ALEXEEV, A.V., PedagogicaIln stitute, Orekhovo-Zuevo,R ussia.
ATAEV, Ch., Institute of Zoology, TurkmenA cademyo f Sciences,A shgabat,
Turkmenistan.
ATAMURADOV, K.I., Natural Conservation Society, Ashgabat,
Turkmenistan.
BABAEV, A.G., Desert Institute, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,A shgabat,
Turkmenistan.
FET, G.N., Department of Biological Sciences, Loyola University, New
Orleans,L ouisiana,U SA.
FET, V., Departmento f Biological Sciences,L oyola University, New Orleans,
Louisiana,U SA.
GOLUBEV, M.L., Seattle,W ashington,U SA.
KAMAKHINA, G.L., Institute of Botany, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
KHARIN, N.G., DesertI nstitute, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,A shgabat,
Turkmenistan.
KORSHUNOV, V.M., Ecocenter,A shgabat,T urkmenistan.
KRIVOKHATSKY, V.A., Zoological Institute, RussianA cademyo f Sciences,
St. PetersburgR, ussia.
KRYZHANOVSKY, O.L., Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of
Sciences,S t. PetersburgR, ussia.
KURBANOV, Dz., Department of Biology, Turkmen State University,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
MANILO, V.V., 1.1. SchmalhausenIn stitute of Zoology, Ukrainian Academy
of Sciences,K iev, Ukraine.
MIKHAILOV, K.G., Zoological Museum, M.V. LomonosovM oscow State
University, Moscow, Russia.
Vlll List of Contributors
MY ARTSEVA, S.N., Institute of Zoology, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
ORLOVSKY, N.S., Desert Institute, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
POPOV, K.P., Desert Institute, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,A shgabat,
Turkmenistan.
RUSTAMOV, AK., Turkmen Institute of Agriculture, Ashgabat,
Turkmenistan.
RUSTAMOV, E.A, Department of Biology, Turkmen State University,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
RUSTAMOV, I.K., Department of Biology, Turkmen State University,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
SALNIKOV, V.G., Institute of Zoology, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
SHAMMAKOV, S., Institute of Zoology, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
SHCHERBAK, N.N., Zoological Museum, 1.1. SchmalhausenIn stitute of
Zoology, Ukrainian Academyo f Sciences,K iev, Ukraine.
SOLOKHA, A.V., TurkmenI nstituteo f Agriculture, Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
SOPYEV, O.S., Turkmen Institute of Agriculture, Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
STAROBOGATOV,Y a.l., ZoologicalI nstitute,R ussianA cademyo f Sciences,
St. PetersburgR, ussia.
TOKAR, AA, 1.1. SchmalhauseInn stituteo f Zoology, UkrainianA cademyo f
Sciences,K iev, Ukraine.
TOKGAEV, T.B., Institute of Zoology, Turkmen Academy of Sciences,
Ashgabat,T urkmenistan.
VOLKOVICH, M.G., Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences,
st. Petersburg,R ussia.
ZLOTIN, R.I., Departmento f Biogeography,I nstitute of Geography,R ussian
Academyo f Sciences,M oscow, Russia.
1. Introduction: One HundredY ears of Natural
History in Turkmenistan
VICTOR FET
Brotherhoodi s our custom,
Friendship is our law.
Makhtumkuli,
Turkmenn ational poet (18th century)
As part of the famous" GreatG ame"b etweent he Russiana nd British Empires
in Central Asia, Turkmenistanw as the last colonial prize of the Russiant sars;
its delineationf rom Afghanistanw as completedo nly in the 1890s.T he Russian
Empire's TranscaspianR egion (Zakaspiiskaya Oblast) was roughly what
Turkmenistani s today; its neighbors were the semi-independenet mirate of
Bokhara to the east and khanateo f Khiva to the north, both remnantso f
medieval Muslim empires.
A stunningr ate of technological,e ducational,a nd cultural progressi n this
desertl and of nomadsw as achievedi n less than 30 years of imperial Russian
rule (pahlen1 963). The famousT ranscaspianra ilroadr an from Krasnovodskt o
Tashkent.S cientific research,w hich had never touchedt his remote corner of
Asia before, went in pace with advancesi n road building, industry, and
irrigation. Traditional interestso f nineteenthc entury Russiann aturalistsi n
Centrala nd Middle Asia, so lively portrayedi n The Gift by Vladimir Nabokov
(1952), naturally extendedt o the newly colonized territories of Transcaspia.
Since the 1880s, naturalistsh ave attemptedt o describet he rich and peculiar
flora and fauna of the magnificents andd esertso f Turkmenistan.
Early notesd escribedt he rich naturalr esourcesin desertsa nd mountainsa s
well as the severed eforestation.L ogging of juniper in the mountains,p istachio
treesi n the foothills, and saksauls hrubsi n sandd esertb egana s early as in the
Neolithic Age, when early farming settlementse mergedi n the foothills of
Kopetdagh (Shishkin 1981). It continued through the era of the ancient
Parthian Empire, whose capital, Nisa, now lies in ruins a few miles from
Ashkhabad,t he capital of Turkmenistan.T imber was usedi n construction,a s
firewood, and also as a charcoal supply for smelting of metals. Green and
populous oases, with such centers of culture and education as Khwarazm
(Khiva), thrived in the Transcaspiain the times of the magnificente mpireso f
Alexander the Great and his followers, only to be destroyed in the next
millenium by Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and other warriors. Human-
influenced desertificatione xpandedi n these times; extensiveg razing of sheep
and camelsb y Huns and, later, Turkic tribes, contributedt o soil deflation and
erosionb y desertw inds and rare, but intensive rains.
V. Fet & K.I. Atamuradov( eds.), Biogeographya nd Ecology of Turkmenistan,1 -4.
© 1994 Kluwer AcademicP ublishers.
2 Victor Fet
An early naturalisto fthe 1900s,c omingb y ferry acrosst he CaspianS eaf rom
well-establishedR ussians ettlementsin the Caucasusw, as able to see herdso f
large gamea nimalss ucha s gazelles,o nagers,a ndw ild sheep.H yenas,l eopards,
cheetahs,a nd even Turanian tigers preyed on a variety of wild game. The
TranscaspianR egion was immediately recognizeda s an important area for
scientific studies. The world-famous Repetek Sand Desert Station was
establishedin 1912 to study the geologyo f the Karakums andd esert.B iological
stationsa nd museumsf ollowed; the first extensivec ollectionsw ere madef rom
the 1890s through the first decadeo f the twentieth century for major Russian
natural history museumsin Moscow, St. Petersburga, nd Tiflis.
With the establishmenot f the Soviet regime after 1917, Russians ciencew as
artficially severed from European scientific thought. Original, mandatorily
isolated Russians choolso f theory in ecology and biogeographyd evelopedi n
the 1920s and 1930s. Primary data for this developmentf lowed from many
geographicaal reaso f the Soviet Union, including Middle Asia; the desertsa nd
mountainso f Turkmenistanc ontinuedt o be an important site of basic field
research( Laptev 1934; Pavlovsky 1934; Kryzhanovsky1 965).
Limited in their abilities to travel abroad,S oviet scientistst raveledt o exotic,
"colonial" domesticp laces.T he desertsa ndm ountainso f Turkmenistanw ere a
favorite "spring vacation"s ite for many Russiane ntomologists,h erpetologists,
and bird watchers.A s a result, the rich faunas of this republic are extremely
well-known as comparedt o many other areasi n Middle East or Central Asia
(Kryzhanovsky and Atamuradov this volume; Shcherbak this volume;
Rustamovt his volume). The well-known volumeso f the "Faunao f the USSR"
and even the more comprehensive" Flora of the USSR," publisheds ince the
1930s,w ere importantl andmarksin the scientific developmenfto r Middle Asia,
similar to the work of British naturalistsi n India. And, as was true of English
for the former subjectso f the British Empire, Russianb ecomet he only scientific
and educationalla nguagef or all Middle Asian republics.S cientific works were
publisheda lmoste xclusively in Russian.T his, on the one hand, preventedt he
Turkmen languagef rom becomingt he tongueo f learnedp eople,a s Arabic or
Farsi had beeni n the past; on the other hand, it allowed free communication
amongs cientists.( I rememberb eing amusedm any times by listening to lively
conversationsin Russianb etweenl ocal Turkmen ornithologists and visiting
bird-watchers from Estonia or Lithuania. There, the Russian language
performed a communication role among subjects of the Empire, with
conversationo therwiseh ardly possible.)
Study of the natural resourseso f Turkmenistana ccompanieda ttemptst o
preservei ts biodiversity, even under the strongestp olitical pressureo f the
epoch. The famous Russiang eneticistN ikolai Vavilov, who perishedi n 1940
under Stalin's terror, establishedth e first plant breedings tation in Kara-Kala
(SouthwestK opetdagh)t o study the tremendousb iodiversity of wild ancestors
of domesticp lantsi n the mountainso f Turkmenistan.C ollection and selection
work on hundredso f strainso f wild grape,a pple, pear, pomegranatea, lmond,
walnut, pistachio,b arley, and oat allowed future geneticistst o explore the last